The History of Bio-Chemical Warfare

[J.B. Stone]

The first few posts in this thread will serve as a historical reference or time line with which to view the development and dispersal of Biological and Chemical Warfare. There is a long history of human attempts to utilize the animal world to their advantage on the battlefield.

With the advent of scientific research the attempts to use disease as a weapon became more effective and wide spread. What follows is simply shocking:

History of Bioterrorism

http://www.bioterry.com/History_of_Biol ... rorism.asp

A chronological History of Bioterrorism and Biowarfare Throughout the Ages


6th Century B.C.
Assyrians poison the wells of their enemies with rye ergot.

6th Century B.C.
Solon of Athens poisons the water supply with hellebore (skunk cabbage), an herb purgative, during the siege of Krissa.

184 B.C.
During the naval battle against King Eumenes of Pergamon, Hannibal's forces hurled earthen pots filled with serpents upon enemy decks. Hannibal won as the Pergamene were forced to fight against man and snake.

1346
During the siege of Kaffa, the Tartar army hurls its plague-ridden dead over the walls of the city. The defenders are forced to surrender.

1422
At the battle of Carolstein, bodies of plague-stricken soldiers plus 2000 cartloads of excrement are hurled into the ranks of enemy troops.

15th C
It has been said that during Pizarro's conquest of South America, he improved his chances of victory by presenting to the natives, as gifts, clothing laden with the variola virus.

1710
Russian troops hurl the corpses of plague victims over the city walls of Reval during Russia's war with Sweden.

1763
Captain Ecuyer of the Royal Americans, under the guise of friendship, presents to the native Americans two blankets and a handkerchief contaminated with smallpox.

1767
During the French and Indian War, the English general, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, gives blankets laced with smallpox to Indians loyal to the French. The epidemic decimates the tribes, arguably, resulting in a successful British attack on Ft. Carillon.

1797
Napoleon attempts to force the surrender of Mantua by infecting the citizens with swamp fever.

1860-1865
W.T. Sherman's memoirs contain an account of Confederate soldiers poisoning ponds by dumping the carcasses of dead animals into them.

1914-1917
Allegations are made against the Germans that during WWI they attempted to spread cholera in Italy, plague in St. Petersburg, and biological bombs over Britain.

1915
Allegedly, a German-American, Dr. Anton Dilger, grows cultures of Bacillus anthracis and Pseudomonas mallei (Glanders), supplied by the German government, in his Washington D.C. home. The agents and an inoculation device are given to sympathetic dockworkers in Baltimore to infect 3000 head of horses, mules, and cattle, destined for the Allied troops in Europe. It is also alleged that several hundred troops are additionally affected.

1924
A subcommittee of the Temporary Mixed Commission of the League of Nations reports that, although Germany was guilty of chemical warfare, there is no hard evidence that she ever employed biological warfare tactics.

1925
The Geneva Protocol bans biological weapons on June 17. It is the first multilateral agreement that extends the prohibition of chemical agents to biological agents. Japan refuses to approve the ban.

1931
In 1994, according to Prince Mikasa of Japan, Japanese military officials attempted to poison the League of Nations investigatory commission who was investigating Japan's siege of Manchuria. They poisoned the fruit with cholera. No one fell ill, however.

1932

As Japanese troops invade Manchuria, Shiro Ishii, a physician & army officer, begins experiments on biological warfare.

1936
Unit 731 is formed. An actual bio-warfare unit masquerading as a water-purification unit. Ishii constructs a 150 building complex just outside of Harbin, Manchuria for experimental purposes. Over 9000 test cases eventually die there. Another biological warfare site was also developed near Changchun named Unit 100. Ishii field-tests biological warfare on the Chinese, soldiers and civilians alike. Tens of thousands die as a result of plague, cholera, anthrax, etc. One method was overflying Manchuria and China. Infected fleas would be dropped with grain. The grain attracted rats. The rats became infected from the fleas (they can regurgitate up to 24,000 organisms in a single feeding) and brought the disease deeper into the human population.

1940
On October 4, the Japanese releases plague bacteria at Chuhsien resulting n the deaths of 21 people.

1940
On October 29, plague is dropped by Japanese planes at Ninpo, causing 99 deaths.

1940
On November 28, Japanese planes drop biological bombs at Chinhua, but there are no deaths.

1941
In January, plague is introduced by the Japanese in Suiyuan and Ninghsia provinces. A serious epidemic follows.

1941
The British are experimenting with anthrax off the Scottish coast.

1941-1943
US launches its own studies surrounding the use of and defense from biological agents. The Army (Chemical Warfare Service) develops Camp Detrick, Frederick, MD into a site for biological R&D.

1943
Camp Detrick in Maryland becomes operational. Field-testing is established in Mississippi.

1944
Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah replaces Mississippi's testing facilities.

1945
Unit 731 is blown up by the Japanese in the final days of WWII. Investigations by US officials begin. There is also speculation that over 3000 American, Korean, British, Australian, Soviet, and Mongolian POWs were used as guinea pigs.

1945-1949
The US Bio-program devolves to research capabilities only.

1946
US announces its involvement in BW research to the world.

1946
The initiation of an alleged deal between the US and 731 leaders. Germ warfare data were to be exchanged for immunity from war crimes prosecution.

1949
A Soviet military tribunal tried twelve Japanese POWs for preparing and using bacteriological weapons.

1950s
Mau Maus use plant toxins to kill livestock.

1950
The US BW program gears up during the Korean War.

1951
A BW bacterial production facility is started at the Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas.

1952
An international group of scientists conducts an investigation concluding that biological weapons were used on the North Koreans and the Chinese. The Americans deny using germ warfare. China and North Korea refuse another investigation by the International Red Cross.

1953
Biological R&D capabilities expand at Camp Detrick. Studies concentrate on defensive measures.

1954
Pine Bluff Arsenal provides Brucella suis for antipersonnel BW cluster bombs.

1955
Pine Bluff Arsenal begins the production of large quantities of Francisella tularemia.

1956
U.S.S.R.'s Marshal Zhukov announces that Soviet forces, in the future, will have the capability of using chemical and biological warfare agents.

1956M
USAMRIID (known then as the Army Medical Unit) becomes operational.

1960s
The Vietcong use fecally contaminated spear traps during the Vietnam war.

1961
Kennedy administration reassesses BW.

1962
The Desert Test Center is established at Ft. Douglas, Utah. One of its missions is the testing of BW weapons and defense systems.

1964
Pine Bluff Arsenal constructs a Virus and Rickettsiae Production Plant.

1966
Pine Bluff Arsenal becomes the storehouse of active BW weapons. The munitions are used for testing purposes only.

1966
A simulated covert BW attack, with a benign agent, in the subway system of NYC reveals that large numbers of Americans can be exposed with just one release.

1967-1969
The US BW program experiences a continual decline in funding and an upsurge in adverse publicity.

1969
The World Health Organization issues a report that describes the unpredictability of BW weapons and associated risks due to lack of complete control.

1969
The Army Medical Unit officially becomes the US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID).

1969
On November 25, President Nixon renounces BW and limits future research to defensive measures only. Toxins are not expressly mentioned.

1970
On February 14, President Nixon closes a loophole when he prohibits the weaponization of toxins and limits its research to defensive purposes only.

1970
Allegedly, the Weathermen, a group opposed to American imperialism and the Vietnam war, attempts to obtain biological agents to contaminate the water supply systems of US urban centers.

1971
From May 10 to May 1, 1972, there is the total destruction of antipersonnel BW agent supplies and munitions in the US.

1972
Members of the right-wing "Order of the Rising Sun" are arrested in Chicago. They possess 30-40 kg of typhoid cultures that are to be used to poison the water supply in Chicago, St. Louis, & other mid-west cities. The 2 arrested are betrayed by recruits. It was felt that had the detailed plan succeeded it would have caused no problem due to chlorination of the water supplies.

1972
Biological Weapons Convention (a.k.a. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction). It is eventually signed by 103 nations.

1975
On January 22, President Ford signs the Biological Weapons Convention.

1975-1983
The countries of Laos and Kampuchea come under attack by planes and helicopters that deliver multi-colored aerosols ("Yellow Rain") over the population. Both man and animal are affected and some die. There is no definitive evidence that these aerosol attacks were examples of biological warfare, but there is a belief among many that, at least some of these attacks, involved T-2 mycotoxins.

1978
On September 7, Bulgarian exile Georgi Markov, in London, is injected in the leg with a steel ball impregnated with ricin via a specially constructed umbrella. He feels immediate pain at the injection site and within 5 hours becomes weak and dizzy. Fifteen to 24 hours later, Markov is febrile, nauseated and vomiting. He is admitted into a hospital 36 hours after the attack where he is found to be febrile, tachycardic, and with swollen lymph glands near the injection site. About 2 days after the attack, he becomes suddenly hypotensive. By the third day he is anuric and begins vomiting blood. He also is in complete heart block and eventually succumbs. The reason for the area of induration and redness on his leg is unknown to Markov or his doctors until the necropsy. This represents, in recent history, the first example of state-supported bioterrorism. The assassination is carried out by the communist Bulgarian government with technology supplied by the Soviet Union. The platinum-iridium pellet is the size of the head of a pin and cross-drilled with 0.016-inch holes to contain the toxin. Only 10 days earlier, a similar assassination attempt was made against Vladimir Kostov in Paris. Only heavy clothing prevented the steel ball from entering any farther than Kostov's subcutaneous tissue. After he learned of his comrade's death, he went in for an examination and the pellet was found before any of the toxin was absorbed.

1979
In April, in the city of Sverdlovsk, USSR, an explosion from Military Compound 19 results in a toxic release. Over the next several days, citizens downwind are stricken with high fevers, difficulty breathing, and death. There are over 40 fatalities. Some believe the estimated death toll approaches 1000. While local doctors announce an outbreak of inhalational anthrax, the government blames the situation on anthrax-contaminated beef. The military takes over a hospital to attend to these victims exclusively. The official cause is made known by President Boris Yeltsin in 1992 when he states that it was an accidental release of anthrax spores in a BW program.

1981
Dark Harvest spreads dirt contaminated with anthrax.

1981
John Powell, former publisher of a Shanghai magazine, exposes the deal between the U.S. and leaders of unit 731 in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists.

1982
LAPD and FBI arrest a man who was preparing to poison the city's water supply with a biological agent.

1983
FBI arrests 2 brothers who had manufactured an ounce of pure ricin.

1984
On August 29, Rajneeshee cultists give water laced with S. typhimurium to 2 county commissioners. Both get sick, 1 hospitalized. No criminal investigation done.

1984
In September, the Rajneeshee cult, an Indian religious cult, contaminates salad bars of The Dalles, OR & Wasco County, OR with Salmonella typhimurium. Over 750 are poisoned and 40 hospitalized. The purpose is to influence the outcome of a local election. It is only discovered a year later when members of the cult turned informants. Two were arrested eventually. Sheela, the chief of staff for Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh serves 21/2 yr. and then is deported.

c. 1980s (early)
There is the reported discovery in a Red Army Faction "safe house" in Paris, of a primitive laboratory said to have contained a bathtub filled with flasks of Clostridium botulinum. The report is later repudiated by the German government.

1985
A former Lt. Colonel, Dr. Murray Sanders, who served as an advisor on bio-warfare, claims he persuaded Gen. Douglas MacArthur to approve the immunity deal with members of Unit 731.

1989
CIA Director, William Webster, announces that "at least 10 countries" are developing biological weapons.

1991
It is alleged that members of the Minnesota Patriots Council attempt to harm an IRS official, local law enforcement, & a US deputy marshal with ricin. They extracted the toxin from castor beans they received from a mail order house. The plan is to deliver the ricin through the skin with DMSO & aloe vera and by aerosol. Four members are arrested when the group is infiltrated by the FBI.

1991
The Iraqi government announces that it has conducted research into a number of biowarfare agents. Only a number of these R&D facilities are destroyed during the Persian Gulf war.

1992
In October, Soko Asahra, head of the Aum Shinrikyo cult, with 40 followers, travels to Zaire in order to assist victims of the Ebola virus. According to an October 31, 1995 report by the US Senate's Permanent Sub committee on Investigations, the cult's real motive was to obtain virus samples to be used for biological attacks.

1995
With the defection of Iraqi General Hussein Kamal Hassan, evidence continues to grow that the Iraqi biological warfare program is more advanced than previously believed. The Iraqi authorities acknowledge that at the time of the war they had 100 botulinum toxin, 50 anthrax, and 16 aflatoxin bombs, 13 botulinum toxin, 10 anthrax, and 2 aflatoxin Scud missile warheads, and 122-mm rockets filled with anthrax, botulinum toxin, and aflatoxin.

1995
According to sources cited by the Office of Technology Assessment and at US Senate committee hearings, there are 17 countries suspected of manufacturing biological weapons (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria, North Korea, Taiwan, Israel, Egypt, Vietnam, Laos, Cuba, Bulgaria, India, South Korea, South Africa, China, Russia).

1995
It is reported that on at least 10 occasions Aum Shinrikyo attempted to disperse anthrax, botulinum toxin, Q fever, & Ebola against the mass population and authority figures in Japan. No reported infections occur.

4/90
Outfitted car to disperse botulinum toxin through an exhaust system and drove car around parliament building.

6/93
Attempted to disrupt the wedding of Prince Naruhito by spreading botulinum in downtown Tokyo via an auto.

6/93
Spread anthrax in Tokyo via a sprayer system from the roof of a building. Done over 4 days.

3/15/95
Planted 3 briefcases designed to release botulinum in a Tokyo subway. The attack was averted when a cult member substituted a non-toxic agent instead.

1995
On May 5, a lab tech from Ohio (Larry Wayne Harris), orders the plague bacterium from a Maryland biomedical supply firm, American Type Culture Collection. 3 vials of Yersinia pestis are mailed to him using no more than a credit card and a false letterhead. Spurred on by his impatience in receiving the order and in his apparent ignorance in lab techniques, the company contacts federal authorities. An investigation reveals that he is a member of a white supremacist organization.

1995
In November, the lab tech from Ohio pleads guilty to mail fraud.

1997
In April, the Counter Holocaust Lobbyists of Zion allegedly send a package claiming that it contains anthrax.

1997
The FBI opens 74 investigations involving the acquisition or use of NBC agents. The vast majority are hoaxes.

1998
The FBI opens 181 investigations involving the acquisition or use of NBC agents. The vast majority are hoaxes.

1998
On February 18, Larry Wayne Harris, a microbiologist said to have been linked to white-supremacist groups, is arrested after he, allegedly, threatened to release anthrax in Las Vegas. The strain in his possession is a harmless veterinary vaccine strain.

1999
According to the Monterey WMD Terrorism Database, in 1999 there have been 175 reports involving NBC incidents. This represents over 25% of the incidents that have been reported since 1900 and 35% of the incidents that have occurred since 1990. Of the 175 incidents in 1999, 104 have occurred in the US (81 involved anthrax threats). The vast majority are hoaxes.

1999
It has been reported that Osama bin Laden has attempted to acquire biological weapons in Sudan and Afghanistan.

1999
In Nakhon Nayok, China, a widow of a man who died of AIDS tries to infect 20 policemen and several politicians with HIV.

1999
On January 6, a perpetrator tries to rob a currency exchange office in Zadar, Croatia using a syringe allegedly containing HIV as a weapon.

1999
On August 17, a bag of medical waste bearing a swastika is found outside of a synagogue in Stamford, CT.

1999
On August 19, a bag of medical waste is found outside of a synagogue in Norwalk, CT.

1999
On August 24, a man, armed with a syringe claimed to be filled with HIV-infected blood, attempts to hold up 3 people.

1999
On October 17, Russian soldiers discover plans to use biological weapons on the bodies of Chechans killed during fighting in Dagestan.

1999
On November 5, James Kenneth Gluck is arrested for threatening to poison 2 Colorado judges with ricin. The raw materials for making the toxin are found in his Tampa home.

09/18/2001
A 38 year old assistant to NBC anchorman, Tom Brokaw, handles a letter containing powder which was postmarked on this date. On 9/25 she notices a raised skin lesion on her chest and over the next three days there is progressive erythema and edema. On 9/29, she develops malaise and a headache. By 10/1, the lesion has developed into a 5cm oval with raised borders and satellite vesicles. There is left cervical lymphadenopathy and a black eschar soon develops. This turns out to be the first case of cutaneous anthrax. The patient recovers with antibiotics.

9/25/2001
FBI contacted about suspicious letter at NBC News.

9/26/2001
FBI arrives to investigate suspicious letter at NBC News. That letter is proven to be negative for anthrax.

9/28/2001
A seven month old son of a ABC producer is taken to his Mother's worksite at ABC, New York. On 9/29, a large, weeping skin lesion is noted on his left arm. Over the course of days, the lesion develops into an ulcer with a black eschar. The child is hospitalized and develops hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia. He is diagnosed as having cutaneous anthrax and recovers uneventfully with antibiotics. Subsequently, cases of cutaneous anthrax turns up at CBS, the NY Times, and the NY Post. All recover.

10/2/2001
Robert Stevens, 63, is admitted to a Lake Worth hospital gravely ill with the presumptive diagnosis of meningitis. The diagnosis of inhalational anthrax was made after further testing. Initial reports from HHS discount the possibility of terrorism. A co-worker, Ernest Blanco is admitted to a Miami hospital with the diagnosis of pneumonia which over the course of time is diagnosed as inhalational anthrax. He eventually recovers.

10/5/2001
Robert Stevens dies from inhalational anthrax-- the first bioterrorist casualty of this millenium. Anthrax was found at his workspace at American Media Inc.

10/8/2001
A letter postmarked Trenton, NJ is mailed to Senate Majority leader, Tom Daschle. It contains a finely milled version of anthrax that has contaminated Capitol Hill and dozens of personnel. Twenty-eight are exposed.

10/12/2001
Cutaneous anthrax is the cause of the lesion on the skin of Tom Brokaw's assistant at NBC News. The origin may have been another letter that was postmarked "Trenton, NJ".

10/14/2001
An aide to Majority Leader Senator Tom Daschle opens a letter with a return address from fictitious Greendale School in NJ. The letter was loaded with high-grade, light, fine-textured anthrax. Three days later, 28 others are tested positive for exposure. This letter comes from the Brentwood postal facility where 2 workers will soon die from inhalational anthrax.

10/16/2001
Joseph Curseen Jr., a postal worker, falls ill with flu-like symptoms.

10/19/2001
A worker, Thomas Morris Jr., from the Washington DC post office that handles all mail delivered in the city is admitted from the ER at Inova Fairfax Hospital in Virginia. He is subsequently diagnosed as having contracted inhalational anthrax. He is the third person to have contracted inhalational anthrax. This is the same postal center, Brentwood, that handled the mail sent to Daschle's office. As a result, many Federal office buildings shut down for varying periods of time ( e.g. The Supreme Court, CIA, etc).

10/21/2001
A D.C. postal worker, Thomas Morris Jr., 53, dies of inhalational anthrax. Meanwhile, Joseph Curseen Jr. goes to Southern Maryland Hospital Center for his flu-like symptoms. He is released.

10/22/2001
The D.C. postal worker, Joseph Curseen Jr., 47, is brought back to the hospital and dies of inhalational anthrax. More than 2,200 D.C. postal workers are placed on a 10-day supply of ciprofloxacin.

10/23/2001
Attorney General John Ashcroft releases the text from the anthrax letters sent to Daschle, Brokaw, and the NY Post. The letters dated September 11 contain the phrases "Take penacilin (sic) now", "Death to America", "Death to Israel", and "Allah is Great". Meanwhile, CDC faces public criticism at a bioterrorism hearing at the Capitol. Defenders cite the CDC's lack of adequate resources. Two cases in point: CDC operates out of W.W.II-era buildings; bad wiring caused a power outage that delayed by 15 hours, CDC's ability to identify the anthrax case at NBC News.

10/24/2001
Bayer Corp. - the supplier of Cipro- agreed to sell the government 100 million pills at $0.95 instead of the original $1.77/pill. There has been a movement to push the Bush administration to contract with other companies to produce a cheaper, generic form of Cipro-- thereby by-passing patent regulations.

10/24/2001
A 59 year old D.C. postal worker presents to an ER with a fever of 100.8F, sweats, myalgias, chest pain, cough, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. A chest x-ray and CT scan reveal a widened mediastinum. The patient was placed on ciprofloxacin, rifampin, and penicillin. Blood cultures diagnose anthrax.

10/25/2001
Homeland Security Director Tom Ridge reports that the anthrax sent to Daschle's office was highly concentrated and designed to be disseminated and inhaled more easily. The US Postal Service to begin environmental testing at 200 postal facilities along the East Coast. Number of confirmed anthrax cases rises to 13- 7 inhalation and 6 cutaneous. Most of the cases are linked to mail passing through NJ, NY, or Washington, D.C. An estimated 10,000 people have been placed on prophylactic antibiotics.

10/25/2001
Kathy Nguyen, a 61 year old female who worked in the stockroom at Manhattan Eye, Ear, and Throat Hospital falls ill with myalgias and malaise. Over the course of the next few days she develops shortness of breath, chest discomfort, and a cough productive of blood-tinged sputum.

10/26/2001
The Supreme Court building is closed for anthrax testing.

10/26/2001
CDC reports that it will administer anthrax vaccine to high risk lab workers and decon specialists because of their constant exposure. This may also be expanded to postal workers.

10/28/2001
Officials confirm a new case of inhalational anthrax in a NJ postal worker. He works at the same facility that processed three anthrax-laden letters going to NY and Washington, D.C.

10/28/2001
Nguyen is brought to Lenox Hill Hospital ER in respiratory distress requiring mechanical ventilation. She is found to have a temperature of 102 F, a chest x-ray displaying pulmonary venous congestion and bilateral pleural effusions. A chest CT scan also demonstrates a widened mediastinum. Blood cultures grow out B. anthracis < 24 hrs. of admission. The patient is placed on levofloxacin, rifampin, and clindamycin.

10/29/2001
Anthrax toll to date: Seven with cutaneous anthrax and 8 with inhalational anthrax (3 of whom have died). The 15th victim, with the cutaneous form, is the first with no direct ties to the media or postal service.

10/29/2001
CDC reports two new cases of anthrax in NJ. One is inhalational in a postal worker and the other is a private citizen who may have contracted the cutaneous form fom the mail. This totals 15, the number of confirmed anthrax cases in NY, NJ, Washington D.C., and FL.

10/30/2001
CDC announces that there have been 16 confirmed cases of anthrax: 6 cutaneous and 10 inhalational (2-FL, 1-NY. 2-NJ, 5-Washington, D.C.

10/31/2001
Nguyen dies of inhalational anthrax. Health officials are puzzled by the fact that she had no direct ties with postal services or with the media-- an epidemiological mystery.

11/2/2001
CDC reports 21 anthrax cases (16 confirmed, 5 suspected).



References

Eitzen EM, Takafuji ET: Historical Overview of Biological Warfare.
In Textbook of Military Medicine, Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, 1997. Published by the Office of The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, USA. Pages 415-424.

www.gulfwarvets.com/biowar.htm: 8/27/00
www.sciam.com/1296issue/1296cole.html: 8/27/00
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol5no4/tucker.htm: 8/27/00
www.ocean.ic.net/ftp/doc/disaster/bio/biowfaq.txt: 8/27/00
cns.miis.edu/pubs/npr/wmdchr72.htm: 8/27/00
www-users.cs.umn.edu/~dyue/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm: 8/27/00

~~~~~~~



Please be aware that these compendiums are meant to serve as a time line ONLY and that some of the incidents are still under investigation and/or many occurrences were enacted under the shroud of Cold War Secrecy.

You will find conflicting reports, for instance, of diseased blankets being distributed in North America by European settlers. The idea here is to establish the historical precedent, not to define the technologies or place blame. It is necessary to understand how the CONCEPT became "acceptable" over the ages.

War has always been with us and perhaps may never leave....but unless we understand the ultimate uncontrollability of the weapons described herein, the literal Doomsday Weapon may be released. This, of course, is the "War No One Can Win". It will truly be the War to End All Wars....amongst Human Populations.

The nations of the world may survive a single terrorist onslaught of Bio-Chemical Weapons or the much vaunted Weapons of Mass Destruction. But if the armies of the world retaliate against a terrorist attack with all the means available to them, there will be NO survivors.

[J.B. Stone]

The History of Biological Warfare

From: "Chapter 8: Viruses and Vivisections: Japan's Inhuman Experiments" in Demon Doctors: Physicians as Serial Killers
By Kenneth V. Iserson, M.D.
Galen Press, Ltd., Tucson, AZ,

Biological weapons are either living organisms that can reproduce, such as bacteria or viruses, or toxic materials produced by living organisms, such as toxins or physiologically active proteins or peptides. (Few biological weapons produce skin lesions; mycotoxin, such as was used in Kampuchea around 1980, is the rare exception.) Since they must be either inhaled or ingested, biological warfare (BW) agents must be dispersed as 1 to 10 µm particles or placed in food or water sources.

While many potential BW agents exist among the thousands of naturally occurring bacteria and viruses, those of use in BW are limited by their:

1. Ease of production
2. Stability
3. Infectivity or toxicity.

The bacteria causing anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, is often considered the best biological agent because of its stability for decades in spore form and ease of production. Among viruses, Venezuelan equine encephalitis is one of the most lethal, and among toxins, staphylococcal enterotoxin and botulinum toxin are potential weapons.

Unlike chemical weapons (CW), which have immediate devastating effects, BW agents often cause early symptoms similar to common illnesses, take time to develop their full potential, and, if caused by active agents, can lead to widespread epidemics before the problem, agent, or source is recognized. The terror produced by even the threat of such weapons magnifies their effect on both military and civilian populations.

Military Use of BW




Armies have used biological warfare for millennia. As early as the sixth century B.C., Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with rye ergot, and Solon of Athens used the purgative herb, hellebore (skunk cabbage), to poison the water supply during his siege of Krissa. In 400 B.C., Scythian archers dipped their arrows in blood and manure, attempting to cause illness in their enemies. The Greeks polluted their enemy's wells and drinking water supplies with animal corpses in 300 B.C.; later the Romans and Persians would adopt the same strategy.

At the battle of Tortona, Italy, in 1155, Barbarossa put human corpses in his enemy's water supply, successfully contaminating it. Catapulting infected corpses into besieged cities was commonplace during the medieval period. In 1346-47, for example, the Muslim Tatar, De Mussis, catapulted bubonic plague-infected corpses over the walls of Caffa on Russia's Black Sea in Crimea, causing an epidemic. The city surrendered and the defending Christian Genoese sailors fled to Italy, possibly beginning the Black Death pandemic throughout Europe.
In 1422, during the siege of Karlstejn in the Holy Roman Empire, soldiers' corpses and 2,000 cart loads of excrement were hurled at the enemy. And, in 1485 near Naples, the Spanish supplied their French enemies with wine laced with leprosy patients' blood.

In the eighteenth century, unsophisticated but effective BW continued to be used. In 1710, Russians catapulted plague-infected corpses into Reval, Estonia, held by their Swedish enemies. In 1763, during the French and Indian War, British Colonel Henry Bouquet gave smallpox-infected blankets to the Indians at Fort Pitt, in western Pennsylvania, resulting in a devastating epidemic. Using the same technique, Tunisians besieging Christian-held La Calle in 1785 threw plague-infested clothing into the city. While besieging Mantua, Italy in 1797, Napoleon attempted to infect the inhabitants with swamp fever.

During the American Civil War, Dr. Luke Blackburn, who would later become Kentucky's governor, tried to infect Union troops by providing them with clothing exposed to smallpox and yellow fever. (At that time, no one knew that yellow fever can only be transmitted through mosquito bites.) It is uncertain if this plan was successful, even though friends and relatives of some Union officers claimed they died because of Dr. Blackburn's efforts. Confederates under General Johnson, retreating in Mississippi in 1863, tried to contaminate potential water sources by leaving dead sheep and pigs in wells and ponds they passed. That same year, however, U.S. Army General Order No. 100 stated: "The use of poison in any manner, be it to poison wells, or food, or arms, is wholly excluded from modern warfare."



During World War I, bacteriological warfare became more sophisticated as microbiology developed, the causative organisms for many diseases were identified, and many were grown in laboratories. During the war, most biological attacks were directed at animals using anthrax and glanders. The Germans launched BW attacks in Romania, Italy, France, Russia, and Mesopotamia. In the United States, the center for BW activity was in Maryland, where Johns Hopkins-trained surgeon Dr. Anton Dilger and his brother Carl produced bacteria to inject into military horses, mules, and cattle destined for the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe. Although never used, the United States tested a devastating biological toxin derived from castor beans, ricin, for military use. A 1918 report reads:

These experiments show two important points: (1) easily prepared preparations of ricin can be made to adhere to shrapnel bullets, (2) there is no loss in toxicity of firing and even with the crudest method of coating the bullets, not a very considerable loss of the material itself . . . It is not unreasonable to suppose that every wound inflicted by a shrapnel bullet coated with ricin would produce a serious casualty . . . Many wounds which would otherwise be trivial would be fatal.

Scrutinizing BW Programs

Despite this research in the mid-1920s, both the United States and the new League of Nations claimed that BW was impracticable, either because of inadequate delivery systems or because of enhanced public health and preventive medicine systems. BW was banned in the 1925 Geneva Protocol signed by 28 nations (the U.S. Senate refused to ratify it), about the time that Dr. Ishii Shiro was making his two-year tour of foreign microbiology research facilities.

In 1931, as Japanese Prince Mikasa revealed only in July 1994, his country's military laced fruit with cholera germs in an unsuccessful attempt to poison members of the League of Nations' Lytton Commission assigned to investigate Japan's seizure of Manchuria. As Japan began its human research experiments in BW and the Germans began the military training and testing of offensive BW in the 1930s, the U.S. military was disparaging the idea that it should be researched or that it could be used. In an influential 1933 article in The Military Surgeon, Major Leon F. Fox wrote, "Bacterial warfare is one of the recent scare-heads that we are being served by the pseudo-scientists who contribute to the flaming pages of the Sunday annexes syndicated over the Nation's press."

The U.S. military appeared to be nearly alone in this attitude. In 1929, the Soviet Union had opened a BW research facility north of the Caspian Sea, and, by 1936, France had a large BW research program and Britain had established a group to investigate offensive and defensive BW issues. By 1939, Sir Frederick Banting, the discoverer of insulin, had initiated Canada's BW research program with anthrax, botulinum toxin, plague, and psittacosis. Britain opened their BW laboratory in 1940.

Only in 1941, when credible evidence arrived that the Japanese were using BW against Chinese troops, did the U.S. government appoint a committee to study BW, although no preparations were in place at the time of Pearl Harbor.



By February 1942, the United States had established the War Research Service to coordinate defensive efforts against BW contamination of the nation's food and water supply. As the war progressed, the government established both offensive BW research programs and supplied selected troops with defensive BW equipment. In June 1944, the U.S. government placed an order for 1 million four-pound SPD Mk I BW cluster bombs, but canceled it as the war ended.

During World War II, Germany had a relatively small BW program, working mainly with plague, cholera, typhus, and yellow fever. Japan had an extensive program, as described in this chapter. BW, however, proved lethal for even those working on or distributing the material. For example, during the 1940s, about 1,600 Japanese researchers and soldiers died from mishandling Unit 731's pathogens.

Common Bw Agents: Used, Stockpiled, And Weaponized

Disease: Agent, Signs and Symptoms, Theoretical Toxicity*, Time to onset



*[If optimally distributed. Higher doses are generally used in BW weapons, since optimal dispersion generally cannot be achieved.]

Anthrax:

Bacillus anthracis Malaise, fatigue, myalgia, fever, non-productive cough (early); followed by severe respiratory distress, chest pain, sweating, swelling, and shock. One gram of spores could kill more than one-third of U.S. population. 50% exposed contract meningitis. Has a mortality rate of 100% (despite appropriate treatment). 1 to 6 days (inhaled)

Botulism:

Botulinum Toxin, Type-A; Clostridium botulinum Blurred vision, lid droop, difficulty swallowing and speaking, muscle weakness, respiratory distress, and death. Few tenths of a microgram is lethal. Eight ounces could kill every living creature on the planet. 2 to 4 days (variable)
Brucellosis:Brucella suis, melitensis, abortus, canis (human pathogenic types) Localized inflammatory process, or acute febrile illness or chronic infection. Depression, headache, and irritability frequently occur. Relatively large amounts. 3 days to several weeks

Plague:

Yersinia pestis Fever, headache, vomiting, chills plus: Pneumonia with blood-tinged sputum (pneumonic) or painful large skin blisters, altered mentation, abdominal pain (bubonic) or purpura, disseminated intravascular coagulation, abdominal pain, cyanosis/ necrosis of fingers and toes (septicemic). Disease caused by 1 to 10 organisms through the skin, or 100 to 20,000 inhaled. Up to 12% of those infected die from disease. 24 hours (inhaled); 1 to 8 days (skin); 2 to 6 days (septicemic)

Q Fever:Coxiella burnetii No common pattern. One organism. 10 to 40 days

Smallpox:

Orthopoxviridae varioloa Malaise, fever, rigors, vomiting, headache, backache, typical skin erruption. ? 12 days (average)
Tularemia:Francisella tularensis Fever, chills, headache, cough, myalgias, and pneumonia. Plus single ulcer and lymphadenopathy (ulceroglandular) or systemic symptoms, more common and severe pneumonia, without local skin lesion or marked lymphadenopathy (typhoidal). 10 to 50 inhaled organisms cause disease. Without treatment, has a mortality rate of 4% (ulceroglandular) to 35% (typhoidal). 3 to 6 days

Typhoid:

Salmonella typhosa Chills, fever, cough, nosebleed, weakness, abdominal swelling and tenderness, delirium, and rash. One lb. of culture in drinking water is as toxic as 11 lbs. of botulinum toxin or ten tons of potassium cyanide. 10 to 12 days

~~~~~~~~

BW Testing and Dissemination

In the 1950s, the United States continued its BW program, developing multiple delivery methods for BW agents. The most successful of these was the M114 four-pound antipersonnel bomblet, designed to be part of a cluster bomb. It contained 320 milliliters of Brucella suis (the bacteria causing brucellosis). The U.S. military also concentrated on testing anthrax and yellow fever-producing up to 500,000 mosquitos a month to carry the latter agent.

In several large-scale open-air tests near heavily populated areas of the United States, the military used Bacillus globigii, Serratia marcescens, and inert particles to demonstrate that BW agents could be distributed using natural continental air flows, making them potent weapons of mass destruction. They also tested BW agents on human "volunteers," including civilian prisoners. During this period, the Soviet Union was also conducting BW tests and was producing and storing large amounts of BW agents.

By the 1960s, the U.S. military was testing a number of vaccines against BW agents on human "volunteers." (In late 2000, the VA hospital system began testing former military personnel who may have been unknowingly exposed to BW tests.) These vaccines included immunizations against Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, tularemia, anthrax, botulinum toxin, Rift Valley Fever, Q fever, Eastern equine encephalomyelitis, and Western equine encephalomyelitis.


[PLEASE SEE THE PROJECT SHAD/112 THREAD FOR MORE DETAILS OF THESE EXPERIMENTS...IT IS MUCH MORE WIDESPREAD THAN THIS ARTICLE SERVES TO INDICATE]

They had also developed the SD-2 Drone, a 300-knot, remote-controlled, recoverable aircraft, with a 100 nautical mile range, that could hold more than 200 pounds of biological agent. They then developed the SD-5, which sped along at Mach 0.75, had a 650 nautical mile range, and sprayed its 1,260 pounds of BW agent through a tail nozzle. The U.S. Military also developed and mass-produced several BW bombs. In additional large-scale tests on unsuspecting civilians, they disseminated Bacillus globigii, supposedly a noninfectious agent with properties similar to anthrax, at various public sites, including Washington, DC's National Airport and Greyhound Bus Terminal and New York City's subway system.

[THESE WERE THE BEGINNINGS OF PROJECT 112/SHAD...TESTING ON UNSUSPECTING CIVILIAN POPULATIONS AND CONFINES]

Banning BW

Only in November 1969, four months after the United Nations issued a report condemning the production and stockpiling of chemical and biological weapons, did President Richard Nixon renounce America's use of BW, saying:

"I have decided that the United States of America will renounce the use of any form of deadly biological weapons that either kill or incapacitate. Our bacteriological programs in the future will be confined to research in biological defense, on techniques of immunization and on measures of controlling and preventing the spread of disease."

[HOWEVER, EARLIER IN 1969, IT WAS ANNOUNCED THAT WE WOULD NO LONGER CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS FOR OFFENSIVE MEANS...I REMEMBER VERY WELL READING THAT ANNOUNCEMENT IN THE HONOLULU NEWSPAPER....JUST A FEW FEET DOWN THE PIER FROM THE GRANVILLE S. HALL....AND THAT WE SIMPLY CHANGED THE NAME OF OUR PROGRAM TO "DEFENSIVE" AND CONTINUED TO CARRY OUT ASSIGNMENTS OFF HAWAII AND CALIFORNIA]

At the time, the United States had put into delivery systems ("weaponized") the lethal BW agents for anthrax, tularemia, and botulinum toxin. They also had stockpiles of at least four incapacitating BW agents, as well as anti-crop agents. In February 1970, Nixon also banned BW toxins.

In the mid-1970s, reports began to surface that BW agents-mostly toxins-were being used in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, primarily by the Russian and the Vietnamese armies. The Soviet Union had signed the Biological Weapons Convention in 1975 and specifically stated that "the Soviet Union does not possess any bacteriological agents and toxins, weapons, equipment or means of delivery."

Yet, on April 3, 1979, an accidental airborne leak of anthrax spores occurred at a previously undetected biological weapons plant, the Soviet Institute of Microbiology and Virology in Sverdlovsk, Russia. Although only one BW weapon discharged and Soviet troops quickly attempted to decontaminate the facility and the city, 66 people downwind of the plant died of anthrax.

Only in 1992 did Russian President Boris Yeltsin admit that Russia had an offensive BW research program. Subsequently, it has been discovered that they also were attempting to use recombinant DNA technology to produce lethal venoms in common bacteria.

Increasing BW Risk


Over the past two decades, the risk of BW has actually increased. In the 1980s, authorities discovered terrorist groups in the United States and Europe manufacturing typhoid bacillus, ricin, botulinum toxin, and other BW agents that they planned to use on civilian populations. The reasons are obvious: ease of production and low costs. For example, NATO estimated that, in 2001, to produce 50 percent casualties in a square kilometer, it would cost about $9,000 for conventional weapons, $4,000 for nuclear weapons, $3,000 for chemical agents and less than $5 for BW agents.

They also have the benefit of not being detectable by ordinary means, such as x-rays, dogs, and other devices, making them easy to transport. Their delayed onset of action, from a few hours to a few weeks; the ability of perpetrators to protect themselves against the agent with a vaccine; difficulties recognizing a BW attack; and no "signature" left at the scene makes it unlikely that the perpetrators would be caught. And, much like a neutron bomb, BW only affects living things, leaving structures intact.

The 1990s' Persian Gulf War produced evidence that Iraq had a large BW facility at al-Hakam. In 1995, Iraq admitted that this facility had prepared about 19,000 liters of botulinum toxin, 8,400 liters of anthrax, and 2,000 liters of aflatoxin and clostridium since 1988. They had "weaponized" some of this material, loading it onto more than 200 BW missiles, plus additional artillery shells, rockets, aircraft spray tanks, and bombs. Iraq is not alone in its offensive BW capability. Experts now believe that Iraq, North Korea, and Russia may have stockpiled the smallpox virus for BW use. Smallpox was eradicated from natural occurrence due to Herculean worldwide public health efforts, so there is little immunity in any population.

Only in 1998 did the world realize that Japan's Aum Shinrikyo cult, before its 1995 lethal nerve gas attack on a Tokyo subway, carried out at least nine BW attacks. Over a five-year period, they had tried to use BW agents against the Japanese legislature, the Imperial Place, several sites in Tokyo, and U.S. Navy facilities. No deaths resulted, because either their agents were not of sufficient virulence or their delivery systems were faulty.

Civil defense agencies now take the threat of BW agents seriously and work to counteract terrorist groups that adopt Dr. Ishii's philosophy: to employ the "silent enemy" of microbiology as a "silent ally."

In 2001, shortly after the World Trade Center tragedy, terrorists used the U.S. postal system to distribute deadly anthrax spores, exposing thousands to the biological weapon, and killing four victims. As of mid-November, the identity of the perpetrators-whether foreign, domestic, or both-is unknown.

SEE ALSO EXPLANATORY CHARTS AND REFERENCES AT:

[J.B. Stone]

UNDERSTANDING IRAQ:

HOW SADDAM HUSSEIN DESTROYED SOME 250 KURDISH VILLAGES CIRCA 1987-88 WITH BIO-CHEMICAL WEAPONS...

Bloody Friday

Chemical massacre of the Kurds by the Iraqi regime

Halabja-March 1988



The pictures are said to have been taken in the aftermath of Saddam's attack using chemical weapons and cluster bombs on the Kurdish city of Halabja (population estimated at 70,000) on March 17, 1988. Halabja is located about 150 miles northeast of Baghdad and 8-10 miles from the Iranian border. The attack, said to have involved mustard gas, nerve agent and possibly cyanide, killed an estimated 5,000 of the town's inhabitants. The attack on Halabja took place amidst the infamous al-Anfal campaign, in which Saddam brutally repressed yet another of the Kurdish revolts during the Iran-Iraq war. Saddam is also said to have used chemical weapons in attacking up to 24 villages in Kurdish areas in April 1987.



Prepared by Alex Atroushi

Of all the atrocities committed against the Kurds during the Anfal, Halabja has come to symbolize the worst of the repression of the Iraqi Kurds. Halabja was a town of 70,000 people located about 8-10 miles from the Iranian border. It became the target of conventional and chemical bomb attacks over three days in March of 1988.




During those three days, the town and the surrounding district were unmercifully attacked with bombs, artillery fire, and chemicals. The chemical weapons were the most destructive of life. The chemicals used included mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun, and VX. At least 5,000 people died immediately as a result of the chemical attack and it is estimated that up to 12,000 people in all died during the course of those three days.



A Glance at the position of the town of Halabja

City of Halabja, with a population of about 70,000 is in the province of Sulaimanya, 260 kilometers north-east of the city of Baghdad. It is surrounded by the heights of Suran, Balambu, Shireh-roudi and Shaghan in the north, south and east. The lake of the dam of Darbandikhan is to the west of this town. Halabja which is within 11 kilometers of the nearest Iranian borderline occupies a green and fertile area covered with forest vegetation. Most of the people of Halabja are farmers or cattle breeders. Halabja and its surrounding villages such as Khormal and Dojeyleh have for long witnessed the struggles of the Kurds against the Iraqi regime.



What happened to Halabja on the Bloody Friday?

The brutal massacre of the oppressed and innocent people of Halabja began before the sunrise of Friday, 18th of March 1988.



The Iraqi regime committed its most tragic and horrible crime from the beginning of the imposed war until now against the civilian people on Friday, 18th of March. On that day, Halabja was bombarded more than twenty times by Iraqi regime's warplanes with chemical and cluster bombs. That Friday afternoon, the magnitude of Iraqi crimes became evident. In the streets and alleys of Halabja, corpses piled up over one another. Tens of children, while playing in front of the their houses in the morning, were martyred instantly by cyanide gases. The innocent children did not even have time to run back home. Some children fell down at the threshold of the door of their houses and never rose again.



A mother who embraced her one-year-old baby, fell down two steps from her house and was martyred. In a 150 meter area in the main street of Halabja, at least fifty women and children were martyred as a result of the deployment of the chemical weapons. A father was sitting over the bodies of his wife and ten of his children in one of the alleys of Halabja and was wailing. The sound of his wailing touched any cruel human being. The crimes were huge, very huge.



In a Simorgh Van, the corpses of 20 women and children who had been prepared to leave the town and the chemical bombardment of the town had deprived them of this opportunity, made any observer stop and ponder about the depth of the catastrophe. Fatal wounds on the corpses of these innocent people were evident.

The doors of most houses were left open and inside of each house, there were some martyred and wounded people.

The enemy had heightened the cruelty and heavy-handedness to its peak and took no pity on its own people.



Saddam's crime in the chemical bombardment of Halabja has indeed been unprecedented in the history of the imposed war. Saddam's crime in Halabja can never be compared to the tragedy of the chemical bombardment of Sardasht. In Halabja more than five thousand people were martyred and over seven thousand more people were wounded.
Women and children formed 75 percent of the martyrs and wounded of the bloody Friday of Halabja.



The Gases Deployed against the People of Halabja

The Iraqi regime, in the chemical bombardment of Halabja and the surrounding towns and villages, has deployed three kinds of chemical gases. According to the findings of Iranian physicians, the mustard, nerve and cyanide gases have been used against civilians in Halabja and its surroundings. A group of the martyrs of the chemical bombardment of Halabja, after inhaling the cyanide gas, were suffocated immediately. Post-mortem examination of the bodies of the chemical bombardment of Halabja, has proved that the suffocation of the most of the martyrs has been due to the inhalation of cyanide gas.

Along with Halabja, Khormal, Dojaileh and their surrounding villages were also chemically bombarded frequently but the center of the catastrophe was Halabja.




Nadriyeh Mohammed Fattah, a 15 year-old girl who
studied in the technical high school of Halabja

The Repetition of a Crime which Has Been Condemned Several Times

The Iraqi regime signed the 1925 protocol of Geneva of the prohibition of the deployment of the chemical and biological weapons in wars in 1931. The regulations of the 1972 Convention of Geneva requesting all countries to cease production, completion and conservation of all kinds of chemical and biological weapons and to demolish them and the UN 37/98 resolution emphasizing the necessity of observing the articles and contents of the 1925 protocol and the 1972 Convention of Geneva have also been accepted by the UN member countries including Iraq.

In late April 1987, twenty four villages of Iraq's Kurdistan were targeted by the chemical bombardment These villages were chemically bombarded twice in less than 48 hours. Saber Ahmad Khoshnam, one of the inhabitants of the bombarded villages in Loqmanodulleh Hospital in Tehran on 28th of April 1987, told reporters that the Iraqi warplanes dropped 18 chemical bombs at Sheikh Dassan, Kani Bard, Pasian and Tuteman villages. He said that more than one hundred people of these villages were wounded and that he had witnessed that an entire family in Parsian village lost their sight. In the course of the chemical bombardment of the late April 1987 of the Iraqi villages, more than 130 innocent villagers were martyred and about five hundred of them were wounded.



The Iraqi regime has deployed chemical weapons against its own people while the UN general secretary's representatives during their visits to Iran in two occasions, prepared detailed reports from the deployment of the chemical weapons against the civilian people and submitted them to the United Nations in reports number S/1 6433 and S/18852 and after the submission of these reports by the general secretary to the Security Council, eventually this council, too, joined those individuals and organizations who condemned Iraq's deployment of chemical weapons. But despite all these condemnations, Baghdad's rulers have continued their crimes.



" The skin of the bodies is strangely discolored, with their eyes open and staring where they have not disappeared into their sockets, a grayish slime oozing from their mouths and their fingers still grotesquely twisted.



" Death seemingly caught them almost unawares in the midst of their household chores. They had just the strength, some of them, to make it to the doorways of their homes, only to collapse there a few feet beyond. Here a mother seems to clasp her children in a last embrace, there an old man shields an infant from he cannot have known what...





On the borders of Kurdistan

On the borders
Where throats are
Choked with good-byes
And eagerness is
Suspended in the eyes
And people asked
When.. where are we ? why..?!

Here a child dies..
There a baby lies, and
Another face-down cries:


My wound is hurting
My breath is hurting
My stomach is hurting,
Mother: Am I to die ?
And my white pigeon ?!
Are we going to die ?


In tears she said:
There beyond the border posts..
Only days: we won't die
For us, God will try..

Again, the child cries:


Will my pigeon die ?
Mother: I love her..
She is my life
Because I love,
She does not deserve to die
I love her...

All broke in tears

Dear.. your pigeon died
When the planes pried

And she broke in tears

My white pigeon was gassed ?!
My Kurdish pigeon died

Mother.. my hair is falling
why ? Am I do die ?

Some water please..
W-a-t-e-r ...



http://www.kdp.pp.se/chemical.html



Iraqi Kurdish men walk in the mass grave yard on Friday, Nov. 1, 2002 which buried thousand people who killed during bombed in March, 1988, with chemical and cluster bombs in Halabja city 260 kms north-east of the city of Baghdad, which is controlled by Patriotic Union Kurdistan PUK.The town of Halabja was bombed with chemical and cluster bombs more than twenty times by Iraqi fighter planes on Friday, 17th of March, 1988. . In Halabja more than five thousand people were martyred and over seven thousand more people were wounded.

http://www.hasanpix.com/show.php?imageid=24

~~~~~~~

AND, NOW...15 YEARS LATER TO THE DAY...

President Bush Remembers Halabja

Saturday, 15 March 2003
President's Radio Address (Remembering Halabja)

THE PRESIDENT: Good morning. This weekend marks a bitter anniversary for the people of Iraq. Fifteen years ago, Saddam Hussein's regime ordered a chemical weapons attack on a village in Iraq called Halabja. With that single order, the regime killed thousands of Iraq's Kurdish citizens. Whole families died while trying to flee clouds of nerve and mustard agents descending from the sky. Many who managed to survive still suffer from cancer, blindness, respiratory diseases, miscarriages, and severe birth defects among their children.

The chemical attack on Halabja -- just one of 40 targeted at Iraq's own people -- provided a glimpse of the crimes Saddam Hussein is willing to commit, and the kind of threat he now presents to the entire world. He is among history's cruelest dictators, and he is arming himself with the world's most terrible weapons.

Recognizing this threat, the United Nations Security Council demanded that Saddam Hussein give up all his weapons of mass destruction as a condition for ending the Gulf War 12 years ago. The Security Council has repeated this demand numerous times and warned that Iraq faces serious consequences if it fails to comply. Iraq has responded with defiance, delay and deception.

The United States, Great Britain and Spain continue to work with fellow members of the U.N. Security Council to confront this common danger. We have seen far too many instances in the past decade -- from Bosnia, to Rwanda, to Kosovo -- where the failure of the Security Council to act decisively has led to tragedy. And we must recognize that some threats are so grave -- and their potential consequences so terrible -- that they must be removed, even if it requires military force.

As diplomatic efforts continue, we must never lose sight of the basic facts about the regime of Baghdad.

We know from recent history that Saddam Hussein is a reckless dictator who has twice invaded his neighbors without provocation -- wars that led to death and suffering on a massive scale. We know from human rights groups that dissidents in Iraq are tortured, imprisoned and sometimes just disappear; their hands, feet and tongues are cut off; their eyes are gouged out; and female relatives are raped in their presence.

As the Nobel laureate and Holocaust survivor, Elie Wiesel, said this week, "We have a moral obligation to intervene where evil is in control. Today, that place is Iraq."

We know from prior weapons inspections that Saddam has failed to account for vast quantities of biological and chemical agents, including mustard agent, botulinum toxin and sarin, capable of killing millions of people. We know the Iraqi regime finances and sponsors terror. And we know the regime has plans to place innocent people around military installations to act as human shields.

There is little reason to hope that Saddam Hussein will disarm. If force is required to disarm him, the American people can know that our armed forces have been given every tool and every resource to achieve victory. The people of Iraq can know that every effort will be made to spare innocent life, and to help Iraq recover from three decades of totalitarian rule. And plans are in place to provide Iraqis with massive amounts of food, as well as medicine and other essential supplies, in the event of hostilities.

Crucial days lie ahead for the free nations of the world. Governments are now showing whether their stated commitments to liberty and security are words alone -- or convictions they're prepared to act upon. And for the government of the United States and the coalition we lead, there is no doubt: we will confront a growing danger, to protect ourselves, to remove a patron and protector of terror, and to keep the peace of the world.

Thank you for listening.

~~~~~~

Perhaps NOW you have a better, more graphic understanding of what Bio-Chemical Warfare really means and why these Weapons of Mass Annihilation MUST be removed from the hands of Terrorists and Dictators and why they must be STRIPPED from the arsenals of the civilized world.

Or, some day YOUR quiet little village may awaken to the terrified shrieks of those poisoned en masse in their homes and workplaces...



More Halabja and Bio-Chemical Weapons information here:

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/shows ... photo.html

[J.B. Stone]

I. HISTORY OF BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
USAMRIID

A. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The following events, some proved and some alleged, comprise a short history of biological warfare.

1346 The use of bacteriological agents in an armed conflict can be dated back to 1346, at Kaffa (now Feodossia) where the bodies of Tartar soldiers who succumbed to the plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged city. It is hypothesized by some medical historians that the action resulted in the infamous pandemic that spread over the entire continent of Europe from Genoa, via the Mediterranean ports.

1710 During the war between Russia and Sweden, Russian troops are said to have used the cadavers of plague victims to provoke an epidemic with the enemy.

1767 The French and Indian War was fought in North America between France and England during the period of 1754-1767. Both sides relied heavily on the support of Indian allies. The English attacked Ft. Carillon twice and were repulsed with heavy losses. An English general, Sir Jeffery Amherst, surreptitiously provided the Indians loyal to the French with blankets infected with smallpox virus. The resulting epidemic decimated the Indians. Shortly thereafter, General Amherst successfully attacked Ft. Carlillon and renamed it Ft. Ticonderoga. By deduction, the small pox epidemic played a significant role in the victory.

1917 In World War I, there is evidence that German agents inoculated horses and cattle with glanders disease in the United States before they were shipped to France. Although horsepower was a major component of logistics during World War I, the German use of BW obviously was not successful in altering the course of the war.

1930-1940 The years between World War I and World War II were quiet ones. Several studies were prepared on BW and military planners were divided on its usefulness. Major Leon Fox, U.S. Army Medical Corps, published a lengthy and defining report for the period which concluded that BW would not be effective because of modern sanitary procedures.

1937-1945 Japan Program
Japan started an ambitious BW program in 1937, 40 miles south of Harbin, Manchuria in a laboratory complex code named "Unit 731.� These studies continued until 1945 when General Ishii ordered the labs of Unit 731 burned to the ground. At the end of World War II, the United States granted amnesty to those Japanese scientists who had participated in the research. Amnesty was granted on one condition. These scientists had to disclose all information accumulated during their programs to the U.S. government. This situation probably developed from the post-war experience in Europe in which the U.S. and USSR competed for German rocket experts. Two Camp Detrick scientists, Dr. Edwin Hill and Dr. Joseph Victor, went to Japan in 1945 and interviewed 22 BW scientists. They brought back several large cases of information. This information was not particularly useful to the U.S. program because the data could not be quantitated. The list of organisms that received research effort during this program was not unlike present day shopping lists of potential BW agents; i.e., anthrax, tularemia, plague, botulism, small pox, glanders, typhoid, typhus, etc. Dr.Hill reported that based on his review, slightly less than l,OOO human autopsies had been performed at Unit 731, and that most of these were performed on humans exposed to aerosols of anthrax. In 1945, this BW program had stockpiled 400 kg of anthrax to be used in a specially designed fragmentation bomb. In 1940 in China and in Manchuria an epidemic of bubonic plague followed overflights by Japanese aircraft. Infected fleas were dropped together with grain which attracted the local rat population; in turn, the rats served as carriers for the infected fleas to the human population.

1943-1969 U.S. Offensive Program (See Section II)

1975-1983 Yellow Rain
Documented testimony indicated that the countries of Laos and Kampuchea were attacked by planes and helicopters delivering aerosols of several colors (yellow, green and white). Shortly after delivery, people and animals became disoriented, sick and a low percentage of those strickened, died. Somewhat later, similar clouds of aerosols were observed in Afghanistan. All these attacks have been lumped under the general category "YELLOW RAIN.� The trichothecene toxins (and most prominently, T-2 mycotoxin) are thought to comprise at least some of these clouds. Several prominent scientists believe that the United States did not prove the case of yellow rain being used in southeast Asia. One scientist in particular developed an hypothesis that defined these chemical attacks as being caused by swarms of defecating bees. Since impinger samplers were not present at the time of aerosol release, it was impossible to collect the necessary evidence that could establish a BW attack. Notwithstanding, the overwhelming data suggest the employment of toxins derived from biologically-grown microorganisms.

1978 A Bulgarian exile Georgi Markov was stabbed with a steel ball (attached on the end of an umbrella) packed with ricin while waiting on a bus in London on 7 September 1978. He died several days later. This incident represented the first case in recent history of state supported terrorism with a B/C agent.

1979 Sverdlovsk Incident
In late April, 1979, the city of Sverdlovsk experienced a loud explosion that was identified as originating from Military Compound 19. Several days later, residents downwind from this compound developed high fever and difficult breathing. Over the next several days, more cases were reported and fatalities rose sharply to around 40. Autopsies revealed severe pulmonary edema in addition to symptoms of serious toxemia. Local doctors announced an outbreak of pulmonary anthrax. On the other hand, government officials reported that the outbreak was caused by the illegal sale of contaminated meat from a cow suffering from the disease. Case fatalities did not display the symptoms of the usual gastric or skin anthrax, which would be more likely if contaminated beef had been handled or eaten. A nine story hospital was taken over by the military to handle exclusively the victims of the explosion. Vaccination and antibiotics were provided to patients and residents alike. The final death toll was estimated between 200 to 1,000. The victims were buried with special sanitary recautions, and relatives were not allowed to attend the funerals. Some western scientists, including those that doubted the evidence in Southeast Asia, accepted the explanation provided by the Soviet Ministry of Health. The Sverdlovsk incident remained unproven; yet all evidence available to the U.S. Government indicated that a massive accident had occurred at a BW production facility. Believers and non-believers of the Soviet explanation remained in a status quo situation until President Boris Yeltsin acknowledged in a press conference, prior to meeting with President Bush in the summer of 1992, Washington, D.C., that the Sverdlovsk incident was in fact a massive BW accident involving an aerosol of anthrax spores.

1991-1992 Presumptive evidence acquired by United Nations BW Inspection Team indicates that Iraq could have been in the early stages of developing an offensive BW capability. On-site inspections revealed several laboratories with state-of-the-art equipment that could have been used for agent production. No evidence, to date, has been established for munitions development and/or agent weaponization. The experience of the U.N. team emphasizes the difficulty of locating a �Smoking Gun� relative to BW programs. This type of program is much easier to hide from inspection than either chemical or nuclear programs.

B. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE U. S . OFFENSIVE PROGRAM

The United States initiated a review of the potential of BW in 1941-1942, implemented a program in 1943 and had established its feasibility by 1969. In 1969, President Nixon disestablished offensive studies including the destruction of all stock piles of agents and munitions. As important events of this program are to be described, the political climate in which the program was implemented must be considered. The policy of the United States was first and foremost to deter its use against U.S. forces, and secondarily to retaliate if deterrence failed. When the BW program was established, the United States was fighting World War II on two fronts, Europe and Asia. When World War II ended, a cold war developed in which the security of the country was still threatened. The tempo of world attitudes and times have changed significantly in the 23 years following the elimination of U.S. BW programs. Because a potential BW threat still exists, the U.S. maintains a defensive BW program.

1941 Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson requested National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to appoint a committee to survey the feasibility of BW. Scattered intelligence reports indicated that Germany and Japan might be preparing for BW.

1942 NAS committee concluded that BW might be feasible and recommended that steps be taken to reduce U.S. vulnerability to BW attack. A civilian agency, the War Reserve Service (WRS) was formed under the direction of George W. Merk, of the Merk Company, a pharmaceutical firm. The WRS soon concluded that pertinent information could not be gotten without large scale developmental operations. The Chemical Warfare Service (later designated Army Chemical Corps) was asked to assume responsibility for large scale activities including the construction and operation of laboratories and pilot plants. The Army chose Camp Detrick, Frederick, Maryland, a small National Guard airfield, as the site for research and development.

1943 Camp Detrick becomes operational as the parent research and pilot plant center with about 4000 personnel: 2800 were Army, about 1000 Navy and the remaining 100 civilian. Field testing facilities were established in Mississippi.

1944 Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah was established as the test center and replaced the facility in Mississippi. Production plant was constructed in Terre Haute, Indiana which never became operational with pathogens. The
plant lacked sufficient engineering safety controls during the fermentation and processing of the simulant, Bacillus globigii (BG). High levels of BG spores were found throughout the plant during operations.

1945-1949 At the end of World War II, construction activities and the testing programs were terminated. All activities gradually phased down to a research status. The production plant in Indiana was sold to Charles A. Pfizer for commercial use.

In 1946, the War Department released to the nation and world that the United States had worked on BW. The release stated, in part: all work on biological warfare carried on in the United States, extreme care was taken to protect the participating personnel from infection. Many new techniques were devised to prevent infection and proved highly successful. Hospitals and dispensaries were maintained at all installations, staffed with both Army and Navy personnel and were equipped to treat accidental infections. As the result of the extraordinary precautions taken, there occurred only sixty cases of proven infection caused by accidental exposure to virulent biological warfare agents which required treatment. Fifty-two of these recovered completely; of the eight cases remaining, all are recovering satisfactorily. There were, in addition to the sixty proven cases, 159 accidental exposures to agents of unknown concentrations. All but one of these received prompt treatment and did not develop any infection. In one instance, the individual did not report exposure, developed the disease, but recovered after treatment. Mr. Merck in his final report to the Secretary of War noted that although remarkable achievements had been made, the potential of BW had by no means been completely measured. He recommended that the program be continued on a sufficient scale to provide an adequate defense.

In the 1947-1949 period small scale outdoor testing was conducted at Camp Detrick using two biological simulants, Bacillus globigii (BG), a spore forming microorganism, and Serratia marscens (SM), a vegetative organism. Both simulants were considered to be totally harmless by medical and scientific experts.

In 1949, an enclosed one million liter test sphere was built of steel at Camp Detrick and BW explosive munitions tests with pathogens were started.

1950 The BW program was expanded during the Korean War years and spurred efforts to again develop a BW retaliatory capability based on the threat of USSR involvement. Expansion plans were kept highly secret.

1951 The first limited BW retaliatory capability was achieved when an anticrop bomb was developed, tested and placed in production for the Air Force. Anticrop agent production sites were carefully selected for safety with the coordination and approval of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Construction of a BW bacterial production facility was started at Pine Bluff Arsenal (PBA), Arkansas.

1953 Major research facilities were constructed to support the expanded R&D program at Camp Detrick. These new laboratories were built to much higher standards of safety than the temporary building constructed during World War II.

With the expansion of the BW retaliatory program, there was a significant increase in defensive studies; i.e., the research program against BW was almost doubled. Data were obtained on personnel protection, econtamination and immunization. Early detection research and alarm systems were initiated but progress was slow then and remains slow today because of the complexity of the technical problems.

1954 PBA production facility becomes operations to meet estimated requirements.

Production of hardware for antipersonnel BW agent cluster bombs delivered to PBA for filling with Brucella suis to support Air Force requirements.

1955 Large scale production of Francisella tularemia was established at PBA.

1956 Marshal Zhukov announces to the Soviet Congress that BW and CW weapons would be used by their armed forces for mass destruction in future wars. U.S. BW/CW policy was reviewed and effort to increase our military effectiveness was implemented.

Camp Detrick became Fort Detrick on 3 February 1956.

The decision to use BW or CW was reserved for the President.

1959 The Chemical Corps mission reached a height of emphasis unprecedented since World War II. The Military Services were submitting requirements for BW munitions, which included dissemination means for artillery, missiles, drones and other lesser weapon systems.

1960 Congress becomes interested in CBR disarmament and holds extensive hearings on the subject. Stimulated by this initiative, the Department of Defense conducted detailed studies concluding that through 1970 no single inspection procedure or combination of procedures were available that would offer a high level of assurance against militarily significant violations of BW arms limitations. Moreover, there was no inspection procedure that would insure against clandestine use of these weapons.

1961 The Kennedy Administration called for a thorough reassessment of BW by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), considering all possible applications including its use as an alternative to nuclear weapons. This project number, Number 112, was one of about 150 projects the new defense leaders were emphasizing. The recommendations of Project 112 would serve as a basis for R&D expansion through 1967.

1962 Desert Test Center (DTC) was established at Ft. Douglas, Salt Lake city, Utah and had as its mission the testing of biological weapons and defense systems at extra-continental test sites. DTC, while reporting to the Army Chief Chemical Officer, had to obtain approval by the JCS for conduct of tests which included materiel, personnel and funds.


[PLEASE SEE THE PROJECT 112/SHAD THREAD ON THIS WEBSITE]

1964-1966 Virus and Rickettsiae Production plant build at PBA. Plant processes were based on the inoculation, harvesting and processing of infected embryonated chicken eggs.

Large-scale freeze drying and spray drying systems built and became operational at PBA.

Entomology capability acquired at PBA in 1965. Plant was never operated in a "hot" mode.

By end of 1966, production facilities were all now fully operational and the BW plants produced several agents. Various types of munition hardware were delivered to PBA, filled and stored there. These munitions were never shipped anywhere except for test purposes.

In June, 1966, vulnerability of U.S. cities to covert BW attack was demonstrated in New York City subway system. This test has received considerable publicity in the news media. The harmless simulant BG was disseminated within the subway tubes and from the street into the subway stations. The simulant data, when translated into equivalent covert attacks with pathogenic agents during peak traffic periods indicated that large
numbers of people could be exposed to infectious doses.

1967 With the need for increasing money to support the U.S. Army's increased involvement in the Vietnam War as well as the mounting efforts in the United Nations to achieve some sort of disarmament agreement in BW/CW, the BW program experienced its first cut in monies. The program continued to experience program cuts in 1968 and 1969. During the latter half of 1968 and throughout 1969, various peace organizations sent their people to picket Ft. Detrick. A long line of pickets, 50 to 100 people, in single file would stand at the front gate of Ft. Detrick each morning (7:30-10:00 am) to greet R&D personnel coming to work.

1959-1969 The Golden Years

The last 10 years of the offensive research and development were "golden" in that a substantial number of scientific advances were made. These advances provided a base of technical information on which it was concluded that biological warfare was eminently feasible with one caveat: the employment of BW was dependent upon careful preplanning. A few of the scientific advances that made this possible are defined in generic terms. Large scale fermentation of pathogenic microorganisms was achieved and could be done safely. Large scale technology was developed for purifying and concentrating bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae and their metabolic by products (toxins). Technology was developed for stabilizing both liquid and dry agents. Stabilization included preservation of the agent at logistical temperatures as well as protecting the agent during aerosol dissemination and cloud aging, and over a wide range of environmental conditions. A variety of munitions were developed that were capable of disseminating agents (liquid and dry products) at high levels of efficiency and in the optimum particle size. The modern principles of biosafety and containment were established by Ft.Detrick scientists, and one in particular is noteworthy, Arnold G. Wedum, M.D., Ph.D.

1969 President Nixon visited Ft. Detrick on 25 November 1969 and announced a new national policy on BW:

"The U.S. shall renounce the use of lethal biological agents and weapons, and all other methods of biological research to defensive measures such as immunization and safety measures. Since President Nixon did not specify "toxins" in his announcement, the scientists at Ft. Detrick, not wanting to loose their jobs and believing that a loophole had been provided to continue BW studies, rewrote their research plans, changing the direction of their research from agents to toxins. This plan of action, so logical and satisfying to the psyche at the time, did not work as noted below.

1970 President Nixon further defined U.S. National Policy on BW in a statement dated 14 February 1970: The United States will confine its military programs for toxins, whether produced by bacteriological or any other biological method or by chemical synthesis, to research for defensive purposes only, such as to improve techniques of immunization and medical therapy.

1970-1972 Total destruction of antipersonnel BW agent stocks and munitions were accomplished between 10 May 1971 and 1 May 1972. The BW plant facilities at PBA were decontaminated and turned over to the Food and Drug Administration. The offensive research program was also terminated in 1970 with a complete inventory of all BW material at Ft. Detrick and Dugway Proving Ground, and destruction of all items except those essential to defensive BW research. Several R&D facilities at Ft. Detrick were decontaminated and leased to the National Cancer Institute and the Army's Health Services command. The formal transfer was completed in 1977. The BW defense program (other than medical defensive studies) was transferred to Edgewood Arsenal.

1975 President Ford signed the Biological Weapons Convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons on 22 January 1975.

C. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS: HISTORY OF THE U. S. ARMY MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Early Years

1950-1954 Several years before any formal arrangements were made, the Surgeon General was concerned about medical defensive problems and a single medical officer from the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR), LTC Abram S. Beneson, was appointed as a medical liaison officer with the Biological Warfare laboratories at Ft. Detrick. Later a Joint agreement was signed and studies on medical defense against biological weapons were conducted cooperatively by the Chemical Corps and the Army Medical Department. During these early years, a Congressionally approved medical volunteer program designated Project Whitecoat was worked-out in 1954 following a series of meetings with representatives of the General Conference of the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the Surgeon General of the Army.

1956 USAMRIID, then known as the Army Medical Unit under the direction of the Army Surgeon General, began formal operations in 1956 under the command of Colonel W. D. Tigertt. One of the Unit�s first responsibilities was to serve as principal investigator managing all aspects of Project CD-22, the exposure of volunteers to aerosols containing a highly pathogenic strain of Coxiella burnetii, the etiologic agent of Q fever. These pioneering studies demonstrated that man was susceptible to as few as ten guinea pig doses when delivered as a small particle aerosol (1 to 5 microns). The sick volunteers were closely monitored and antibiotic therapy was administered when appropriate. All volunteers completely recovered from Q fever with no adverse after effects.

1957 Investigational new drug (IND) submitted on behalf of the killed Q fever vaccine.

1961 Colonel Dan Crozier assumed command. He was heavily involved in the planning and construction of the present laboratories�which rank among the most advanced in the world. During his command, construction of the new laboratory building began with ground breaking in 1967. Personnel moved into Phase I of the building in 1971 and Phase II in 1972. Killed and live attenuated tularemia vaccines were tested in volunteers using virulent aerosol challenge. This study was particularly significant in that it demonstrated that multiple doses of killed vaccine was not effective in protecting against a small particle aerosol challenge. The live attenuated (LVS) vaccine was highly effective; albeit, the data suggested that protection should be overcome with larger doses of virulent organisms. Since this initial study was accomplished, similar evidence has been established that live, not killed, vaccines are protective against aerosol challenge with different organisms. These latter studies have used primates rather than volunteers.

1965 IND submission for the TC-83 live attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) vaccine was made.

1967 IND submission for killed Eastern equine encephalitis vaccine was made.

1968 IND submission for killed Western equine encephalitis vaccine was made.

1969 With the disestablishment of the Biological Warfare Laboratories, the Institute underwent a formal name change from the Medical Unit to the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID). Although the Institute's mission did not change, it received additional funding and personnel authorizations to hire biolaboratory scientists who were losing their jobs as a result of the termination of offensive BW studies.

The formal mission tasking USAMRIID reads as follows: "Performs studies on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, prophylaxis, treatment, and epidemiology of naturally occurring infectious diseases of military importance with emphasis on problems associated with the medical defense against biological agents and on those microorganisms which require special containment facilities." By DOD directive and further Army guidance, USAMRIID performs its Biological Agent Medical Defense research in support of the needs of the three services. This mission, and all work done at USAMRIID, is in keeping with the spirit and letter of both President Nixon's 1969 and 1970 Executive Orders renouncing the use of biological and toxin weapons, and the U.N. Convention (Against)� Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons�of 1972. IND submission of killed Chikungunya vaccine was made.

1972 The Institute received the U.S. Department Superior Service Award. The award reads: "For contributing to the achievement of the VEE task force recognized for excellence, creative leadership, dedication and sacrifice in cooperative state/federal service to agriculture and the nation in averting a major animal disease (Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis) epidemic and agribusiness disaster."

1973 Colonel Joseph Metzger assumed command of USAMRIID, succeeding BG Kenneth Dirks, whose command spanned only a few months. During COL Metzger's command, research priorities were devoted to the development of vaccines and therapeutic modalities against rickettsiae in general, and Coxiella burnetii in particular.

1977 Colonel Richard F. Barquist assumed Command. Under his direction, research programs were implemented or expanded on Argentinean, Korean and Bolivian hemorrhagic fevers, Lassa fever and other unique diseases that could pose potential BW threats as well as affecting rapid deployment forces. These high hazard agents required special BL-4 (P-4) containment facilities in order that they may be studied safely. USAMRIID continues to be one of the few laboratories in the free world where research can be conducted on such virulent organisms with minimum risk to laboratory personnel and no risk to the surrounding environment. The thrust of the research was to develop vaccines and therapeutic measures as well as to develop an understanding the disease progression in appropriate animal models.

1978 The Institute became involved in a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever (RVF) which occurred for the first time in Egypt. A large supply of the Institute's stock of RVF vaccine was sent to Egypt to help control the epidemic which involved thousands of human cases and the death of large numbers of livestock. USAMRIID investigators also provided a critical diagnostic capability. Priority was then given to the production of 300,000 doses of new vaccine to replenish depleted stocks. USAMRIID competed against 41 other R&D laboratories throughout the Army and won the coveted award "Best Laboratory" or "Laboratory of the Year" award.

USAMRIID was judged to be the Number One laboratory in the In-house Laboratory Independent Research Program (ILIR) and received a $50,000 bonus to expand its ILIR research. ILIR monies come directly from the Secretary of the Army to the Laboratory Commander (not though regular Army money channels) to fund research which, if successful, will have a major impact on the laboratory mission. ILIR funds are allotted to the participating laboratory on the basis of competition with other R&D Army laboratories.

1979 The Institute acquired fixed and transportable P-4 containment plastic human isolators for the hospital care and safe transport of patients suffering from highly contagious and often lethal infections. A formal agreement was signed with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia to house and treat high hazard infections in their personnel, should they occur.

1980 A new program was initiated on Legionella pneumophilia at the urging of some medical authorities. Almost one year later, a panel of experts decided that this organism did not have potential as a BW agent. This dichotomy of expert opinion on what constitutes a BW agent illustrates the problem of developing a medical defensive program. (Editorial comment: Since 1989, there have been an improvement in defining BW threat agents, and medical defensive studies have responded in kind.) Following the Sverdlovsk accident in 1979, a new program was undertaken to improve the current anthrax vaccine, and to develop new information on the pathogenesis of the disease. A new research program was initiated to study tricothecene fungal toxins, marine toxins and other small molecular weight toxins of microbial origin. This new program required a reorganization of personnel and a reordering of priorities in order to be implemented.

1982 New diagnostic methods for several organisms were developed using ELISA technology and the production of new diagnostic reagents including the extensive use of monoclonal antibodies. USAMRIID was selected as winner of the "Laboratory of the Year Award" in competition with all other U.S. Army R&D laboratories. USAMRIID was selected as the top Army laboratory in the ILIR competition and received a bonus of $100,000 to be applied to future ILIR studies. A new course entitled, "Medical Defense Against Biological Agents," was introduced. The course was designed to familiarize military physicians, nurses and support personnel with the special problems posed by BW. This course is the one you now attend with some changes in format.

1983 Colonel David L. Huxsoll became Commander and under his leadership the institute was to experience unparalleled growth in resources� manpower, money, equipment and facilities. The mission statement of the institute was changed to read "USAMRIID develops strategies, products, information, procedures and training for
medical defense against biological warfare agents and naturally occurring infectious agents of military importance that require special containment." The Institute's military personnel were organized into 32 biologic/toxin rapid deployment response teams (each team composed of specialist) prepared to support U.S. Forces should situations develop where BW contamination has occurred or is suspected of having occurred.

1985-1990 The Deputy Chief of Staff, Army, (General Maxwell Thurmond conducted a Functional Area Assessment (FAA) on the biological threat posed to U.S. Forces. The USAMRIID commander played a key role in this briefing. General Thurmond became concerned about the BW threats particularly, the application of genetic engineering technology to alter conventional microorganisms and his FAA review resulted in a five year plan of expansion for medical defensive measures. The 1985 in-house budget of 34 million dollars was to expand to 45 million dollars the next year and was eventually scheduled to reach 93.2 million in-house dollars by 1989, in incremental steps. Twenty-three additional civilian allotments were authorized in 1985 with 275 additional allotments to be added in increments in the succeeding years. The medical contract or extramural programs also received additional resources. Not only did medical defensive measures receive additional funds, but physical defensive funds also significantly increased. The need for a physical detection system to identify an aerosol of infectious agent became apparent. Lack of such a system represented one of the major technical deficiencies that required immediate attention. The USAMRIID expanded program was designed to continue to address conventional threat organisms, and also to implement several new programs on toxins as well as genetically-altered organisms and carriers. Additional laboratory facilities would be required to support the expanded program: the establishment of a contractor owned-contractor operated (COCO) facility to support major laboratory and administrative requirements was considered; and an MCA project to renovate Building 1412 was placed in readiness.

1986 New toxin program established following the 5 year expansion plan.

l987 The USAMRIID program of expansion set-forth by the FAA in 1985 never materialized. The Army experienced several budget cuts and these were passed-on through channels to the Institute. The toxin laboratory was not built, but Building 1412 was upgraded and additional office space for the professional staff was obtained.

1988-1989 The Investigative Years
The FAA described above provided increased resources to the Biological Warfare Defense Program, not in the amounts originally planned, but the increases were real. The FAA also resulted in an increased awareness by The Congress on how these funds were being spend. No longer was biological warfare defense a quiet area of the DOD budget. Even though by 1988, USAMRIID was actually undergoing cuts in its in-house and extramural programs, USAMRIID came under close scrutiny by several Congressional Committees. For example, the Senate Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, chaired by Senator Carl Levin, issued a report quite critical in the DOD's management of biological safety issues in the CBW programs. (Editorial comment: Biological safety is addressed in detail in the "Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement," for the Biological Defense Research Program (1989). Senator John Glenn, Chairman, Committee on Governmental Affairs asked the
Government Accounting Office (GAO) to investigate the validity of DOD's Biological Defense Research Program. The GAO issued a critical report that concluded the Army spent funds on R&D efforts that did not address validated BW threats and may have duplicated the research efforts of the Centers for Disease Control and the National Institutes of Health. (Editorial comment: As long as the Biological Warfare Laboratories were active, USAMRIID's role was fairly simple. The Institute developed vaccines and treatment modalities in response to agents that received priority study in the offensive program. This relationship changed in 1969 with the termination of offensive studies. Subsequently, medical defense against BW became a quiet area of attention and low priority. Little or no intelligence resources were assigned to the BW problem since 92 nations had signed the treaty banning BW. USAMRIID filled this void by conducting studies on several classes of organisms, all of which contained members with some level of BW potential.)

1990-1991 Colonel Ronald G. Williams assumed command of the Institute during the period of Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Although BW was not used by Iraq during the Gulf War, USAMRIID provided timely advice and products to insure an effective medical response if a medical defense were required. USAMRIID scientists trained and equipped six special laboratory teams for rapid identification of potential BW agents. Vaccines and drugs were deployed in the field to combat infectious diseases that have historically taken the greatest tolls on every battlefield. Following the war, USAMRIID physicians and engineers were key members of a United Nations Special Commission Inspection Team that evaluated the BW capabilities in Iraq.

1992 Colonel Ernest T. Takafuji assumed command of USAMRIID in September of 1992.

http://www.gulfwarvets.com/biowar.htm

[J.B. Stone]

THE EFFECTS OF BIO-CHEMICAL AND NUCLEAR EXPOSURES IN EVEN MINUTE AMOUNTS CAN LAST FOR YEARS, HIDE FOR DECADES, AND BE PASSED DOWN THROUGH MANY SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS...

Killer disease hits '91 vets early
By ASSOCIATED PRESS
Published September 23, 2003

ATLANTA - Veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War are coming down with Lou Gehrig's disease at three times the normal rate for their age group, and the incidence is accelerating as they age, according to two studies published today in the journal Neurology that link the deadly disorder to exposure to nerve gas and other toxic agents.

Officially known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, it typically doesn't strike men and women under age 45, said Dr. Robert Haley of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas and lead author of one of the studies, "but something they were exposed to over there has triggered it much earlier."

A separate study by the Department of Veterans Affairs supported Haley's findings.

Haley said Monday that at least 60 veterans under age 45 had been diagnosed, far more than would have been expected in that age group. He said the ALS outbreak was probably triggered by exposure to sarin gas or other agents.

http://www.sptimes.com/2003/09/23/World ... ts__.shtml

http://sarinnervegas.newstrove.com/

[J.B. Stone]

THIS STUNNING REPORT FROM THE NEW YORKER MAGAZINE BRINGS TO LIGHT THE IMMENSITY AND LETHALITY OF THE PROBLEMS WE NOW FACE,

EXCERPTED:


Source: Hardcopy of The New Yorker, March 9, 1998, pp. 52-65

Thanks to Richard Preston and The New Yorker

ANNALS OF WARFARE
THE BIOWEAPONEERS

In the last few years, Russian scientists have invented the world's deadliest
plagues. Have we learned about this too late to stop it?

By Richard Preston

KEN ALIBEK is a quiet man, forty-seven years old, with youthful looks and an attractive, open face. He lives in a rented condominium in Arlington, Virginia, a five-minute walk from his office at a private consulting firm. Alibek has dark hair and Asian features, and a dimpled scar on his nose, which he got in an accident that was "not heroic," he says, involving a machine in a biowarfare plant.

Before he arrived in the United States, in 1992, Ken Alibek was Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov, the first deputy chief of research and production for the Soviet biological-weapons program. He was the top scientist in the program, a sprawling, clandestine enterprise known as Biopreparat, or The System, by the scientists who worked in it. Biopreparat research-and-production facilities were flung all across the Soviet Union. As Dr. Alibekov, Ken Alibek had thirty-two thousand scientists and staff people working under him.

Alibek has a Doctor of Sciences degree in anthrax. It is a kind of superdegree, which he received in 1988, at the age of thirty-seven, for directing the research team that developed the Soviet Union's most powerful weapons-grade anthrax. He did this research as head of the Stepnagorsk bioweapons facility, in what is now Kazakhstan, which was once the largest biowarfare production facility in the world. The Alibekov anthrax became fully operational in 1989. It is an amber-gray powder, finer than bath talc, with smooth, creamy particles that tend to fly apart and vanish in the air, becoming invisible and drifting for miles. The Alibekov anthrax is four times more efficient than the standard product.

Ken Alibek is part of a diaspora of biologists who came out of Russia following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Government funding for research decreased dramatically, and scientists who were working in the biowarfare program found themselves without jobs. Some of them went looking abroad. A few have come to the United States or Great Britain, but most went elsewhere. "No one knows where they are," Alibek says. One can guess that they've ended up in Iraq, Syria, Libya, China, Iran, perhaps Israel, perhaps India -- but no one really knows, probably not even the Russian government. No doubt some of these biologists have carried the Alibekov formula in their heads, if not master seed strains of the anthrax and samples of the finished product in containers. The Alibekov anthrax may be one of the more common bioweapons in the world today. It seems plausible that Iraqi biologists, for instance, know the Alibekov formula by now.

One day, Ken Alibek and I were sitting in a conference room near his office talking about the anthrax he and his research team had developed. "It's very difficult to say if I felt a sense of excitement over this. It's very difficult to say what I felt like," he said. "It wouldn't be true to say that I thought I was doing something wrong. I thought I had done something very important. The anthrax was one of my scientific results -- my personal result."

I asked him if he'd tell me the formula for his anthrax.

"I can't say this," he answered.

"I won't publish it. I'm just curious," I said.

"Look, you must understand, this is unbelievably serious. You can't publish this formula," he said. When I assured him I wouldn't, he told me the formula for the Alibekov anthrax. He uttered just one sentence. The Alibekov anthrax is simple, and the formula is somewhat surprising, not quite what you'd expect. Two unrelated materials are mixed with pure powdered anthrax spores. It took a lot of research and testing to get the trick right, and Alibek must have driven his research group hard and skillfully to arrive at it. "There are many countries that would like to know how to do this." he said.

~~~~~~~~~

I first heard about Ken Alibek in 1995, although at that time none of my contacts would tell me his name. He was referred to only as No. 2. (Biodefector No. 1 had come out in 1989.) Last fall, when I finally figured out that No. 2 was Alibekov, I called up a source who has connections to British intelligence and told him I thought I knew who No. 2 was. He cut me off. "Don't say a name," he said. "I can't confirm anything. Have you forgotten that we are talking on an open telephone line?" That source went nowhere, but then I had an idea. For several years, I have known a man named William C. Patrick III, who in certain important respects is the leading American expert on biological weapons. Before 1969, when President Richard Nixon shut down the American biowarfare program, Bill Patrick was the chief of product development for the United States Army's biological-warfare laboratories at Fort Detrick, Maryland. The "products" that Patrick and his research group developed were powdered spores and viruses that were loaded into bombs and sophisticated delivery systems. Patrick was arguably the top bioweaponeer in the United States. He and several hundred other scientists and research-staff members lost their jobs when the biowarfare facilities at Fort Detrick were closed down. (Today, to the best of my knowledge, the scientists at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, or USAMRIID, at Fort Detrick don't make offensive bioweapons. They develop vaccines and treatments to defend against them. As far as I can tell, the United States has no bioweapons, and one piece of evidence for this is that government officials today are remarkably ignorant of them.)

Bill Patrick, who is now seventy-one years old, is one of only two or three scientists still alive and active in the United States who have a hands-on technical understanding of bioweapons. As he explained to me, "There's a hell of a disconnect between us fossils who know about biological weapons and the younger generation." In 1991, on the eve of the Gulf War, he was summoned to the Pentagon to take part in a discussion of anthrax. Patrick sat in silence while a group of intelligence analysts, young men and women dressed in suits, discussed anthrax in knowledgeable-sounding voices. "I reached the conclusion that these people didn't know what the hell they were talking about," Patrick recalls. He said, "Have any of you fellows actually seen anthrax?" and he reached into his pocket and pulled out a small jar of amber-brown powder, and chucked it across the table. It rattled and bounced toward the analysts. They jerked away, some leaping to their feet. The jar contained anthrax simulant, a biopowder that is essentially identical to anthrax except that it doesn't kill. It is used for experiments in which properties other than infectivity are being tested. "I got that through security, by the way," Patrick observed.

Later, Bill Patrick was the oldest United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq. The Iraqis knew exactly who he was -- the former top scientist in the former American bioweapons program. Iraqi intelligence people started calling his hotel room in Baghdad at night, hissing, "You son of bitch, Patrick," and then hanging up. "It was kind of an honor, but it kept me awake," he says.

Today, Bill Patrick is a consultant to many government agencies -- the C.I.A., the F.B.I., the Defense Intelligence Agency, the City of New York -- on the use of biological weapons in a terrorist attack. Jerome Hauer, who is the head of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani's Office of Emergency Management -- the group that would handle a bioterror event in New York, should one ever happen -- said to me once, "Bill Patrick is one of the only guys who can tell us about some of these biological agents. We all wonder what we're going to do when he decides to light up a cigar and go sailing." Patrick is able to tell emergency planners what will happen if a biological weapon is released in an American city -- how many people will die, where they'll die, what the deaths will look like. His reports are classified. Bill Patrick and Ken Alibek were counterparts. They had been two of the top scientists in what had been the best biowarfare programs on the planet. I speculated that Patrick might know Alibek.

"Do I know Ken?" Patrick boomed over the telephone. "We're close friends! My wife and I had Ken over for Christmas this year with our family, because we think he's kind of lonely."

Then I thought I understood: Patrick must have participated in the long government discussions with Alibek -- the debriefing -- that would have taken place after his arrival in the United States. No one else in the U.S. government, not a single soul, would have understood so clearly what Alibek was talking about. The two scientists had become friends during the process.

~~~~~~~~~

Dr. Ustinov was forty-four years old. Alibek recalls him as a fair-skinned man with light-brown hair, ethnically a Russian. He had a wife and children. Alibek thought of him as a good guy and a talented scientist, easy to talk with, receptive to new ideas. Ustinov had been doing basic military research on the Marburg virus, studying its potential as a weapon. The long-term goal was to see if it could be loaded into special biological warheads on the MIRV missiles that were aimed at the United States. (A MIRV has multiple warheads, which are directed at different targets.) At the time, the Soviet biological missile warheads were designed to be loaded with strategic/operational smallpox virus, Black Death, and anthrax. The Marburg virus had potential for weaponization, too. Marburg is a close cousin to the Ebola virus, and is extremely lethal. Dr. Ustinov had been wearing a spacesuit in a Level 4 hot lab, injecting guinea pigs with Marburg virus. He pricked himself in the finger with a needle, and it penetrated two layers of rubber gloves.

Nikolai Ustinov exited through an air lock and a chemical decon shower to Level 3, and used an emergency telephone to call his supervisor. The supervisor decided to put Ustinov into a biocontainment hospital, a twenty-bed unit with steel air-lock doors, like the doors of a submarine, where nurses and doctors wearing spacesuits could monitor him. He was not allowed to speak with his wife and children. Ustinov did not seem to be afraid of dying, but, separated from his family, he became deeply depressed.

On about the fourth day, Ustinov developed a headache, and his eyes turned red. Tiny hemorrhages were occurring in them. He requested a laboratory notebook, and he began writing a diary in it, every day. He was a scientist, and he was determined to explain how he was dying. What does it feel like to die of Marburg virus? What are the psychological effects? For a while, he maintained a small hope that he wouldn't die, but when his skin developed spontaneous bruises he understood what the future held. Dr. Sandakhchiev's cryptograms to Alibek were dry and factual, and didn't include the human details. Alibek would later learn that perhaps twice Ustinov had broken down and wept.

Alibek was frantic to get help to Ustinov. He begged the Ministry of Defense for a special immune serum, but bureaucratic delays prevented its arrival in Siberia until it was too late. When Ustinov began to vomit blood and pass bloody black diarrhea, the doctor gave him transfusions, but as they put the blood into him it came out of his mouth and rectum. Ustinov was in prostration. They debated replacing all the blood in his body with fresh new blood -- a so-called whole-body transfusion. They were afraid that that might trigger a total flooding hemorrhage, which would kill him, so they didn't do it.


ALIBEK did not know exactly which strain of Marburg had infected his colleague. It had been obtained by Soviet intelligence somewhere, but the scientists were never told where strains came from. The Marburg virus seems to live in an unknown animal host in East Africa. It has been associated with Kitum Cave, near Mt. Elgon, so the Soviet strain could have been obtained around there, but Alibek suspected that it came from Germany. In 1967, the virus had broken out at a vaccine factory in Marburg, a small city in central Germany, and had killed a number of people who were working with monkeys that were being used to produce vaccine. One of the survivors was a man named Popp, and Alibek thought that Ustinov was probably dying of the strain that had come from him. I have seen a photograph of a Marburg monkey worker taken shortly before his death, in late summer, 1967. He is a stout man, lying on a hospital bed without a shirt. His mouth is slack, his teeth are covered with blood. He is hemorrhaging from the mouth and nose. The blood has run down his neck and pooled in the hollow of his throat. It looks spidery, because it's unable to clot. He also seems to be leaking blood from his nipples.

The final pages of Dr. Nikolai Ustinov's scientific journal are smeared with unclotted blood. His skin developed starlike hemorrhages in the underlayers. Incredibly -- the Vector scientists had never seen this -- he sweated blood directly from the pores of his skin, and left bloody fingerprints on the pages of his diary. He wept again before he died.

he sweated blood directly from the pores of his skin,

I MIGHT POINT OUT AT THIS JUNCTURE THAT MY DAUGHTER, KRISTEN AMBER STONE, DIED IN 1980 AT THE AGE OF 6 DAYS, EXHIBITING THIS PHENOMENON, 10 YEARS AFTER MY PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT 112/SHAD IN THE U.S. NAVY....ALONG WITH HER HAVING BEEN BORN PREMATURELY AT A WEIGHT OF 2 POUNDS, 1 OUNCE, HAVING HYALIN MEMBRANE DISEASE, BEING OPERATED ON AT THE AGE OF 3 DAYS FOR A PERFORATED INTESTINE, EXPERIENCING GRAND MAL SEIZURES DUE TO MASSIVE HEMMORHAGING IN HER BRAIN, AND HAVING EXPERIENCED SEVERAL TOTAL BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS...

GOD REST HER SOUL

I will have no other children.

I'm not that selfish...

A GENERATION ago, biological weapons were called germ-warfare weapons. Biological weapons are very different from chemical weapons. A chemical weapon is a poison that kills upon contact with the skin. Bioweapons are microorganisms, bacteria or viruses, that invade the body, multiply inside it, and destroy it. Bioweapons can be used as strategic weapons. That is, they are incredibly powerful and dangerous. They can kill huge numbers of people if they are used properly, and their effects are not limited to one place or a small target. Chemical weapons, on the other hand, can be used only tactically. It is virtually impossible to put enough of a chemical in the air in a high enough concentration to wipe out a large number of people over a large territory. And chemicals aren't alive and can't spread through an infectious process.

There are two basic types of biological weapons, those that are contagious and those that are not. Anthrax is not contagious: people don't spread it among themselves; you can't catch anthrax from someone who is dying of it. Smallpox is contagious. It spreads rapidly, magnifying itself, causing mortality and chaos on a large scale.

Like any weapon, a biological weapon can be released accidentally, but when a biological accident happens, the consequences can be particularly insidious. I talked about this with Ken Alibek that day in Bill Patrick's kitchen, while we drank whiskey in the soft light of a winter afternoon. Alibek spoke about how bioweapons have a disturbing tendency to invade nonhuman populations of living creatures -- thus finding a new niche in the ecosystems of the earth, apart from the human species. When he was the acting director of the biowarfare facility at Omutninsk, his safety officers discovered that wild rodents living in the woods outside the factory had become chronically infected with the Schu-4 military strain of tularemia -- a bacterium that causes a type of pneumonia -- which was being made in the plant. It was a hot, lethal strain that came from the United States: an American biological weapon that the Soviets had managed to obtain during the nineteen-fifties. Now, unexpectedly, the wild rodents were spreading Schu-4 among themselves in the forests around Omutninsk. The rodents were not the natural host of tularemia, but it had apparently established itself in them as new hosts. People catch tularemia easily from rodents, and it can be fatal. Alibek mounted an investigation and found that a pipe running through a basement area had a small leak and was dripping a suspension of tularemia cells into the ground. The rodents may have come in contact with the contaminated soil in that one spot.

The staff tried to sterilize the forest of rodents near the plant. That didn't work, because rodents are impossible to eradicate. "We could not get rid of the rodents. We tried everything," Alibek said. "Nobody knows today, but we can assume that the tularemia is still there in the rodents." Nobody knows if anyone has died of the American-Russian tularemia around the Kirov region.

"Could it have spread across Russia in rodents?" I asked.

"This I don't know."

~~~~~~~~

THE most powerful bioweapons are dry powders formed of tiny particles that are designed to lodge in the human lung. The particles are amber or pink. They have a strong tendency to fly apart from one another, so that if you throw them in the air they disperse like a crowd leaving Yankee Stadium. As they disperse, they become invisible to the human eye, normally within five seconds after the release. You can't see a bioweapon, you can't smell it, you can't taste it, and you don't know it was there until days later, when you start to cough and bleed, and by that time you may be spreading it around. Bill Patrick holds five patents on special processes for making biodusts that will disperse rapidly in the air and form an invisible sea of particles. His patents are classified. The U.S. government does not want anyone to obtain Patrick's research.

The particles of a bioweapon are exceedingly small, about one to five microns in diameter. You could imagine the size this way: around fifty to a hundred bioparticles lined up in a row would span the thickness of a human hair. The particles are light and fluffy, and don't fall to earth. You can imagine motes of dust dancing in a shaft of sunlight. Dust motes are mostly bits of hair and fuzz. They are much larger than weaponized bioparticles. If a dust mote were as thick as a log, then a weaponized bioparticle would resemble a child's marble. The tiny size of a weaponized bioparticle allows it to be sucked into the deepest sacs of the lung, where it sticks to the membrane, and enters the bloodstream, and begins to replicate. A bioweapon can kill you with just one particle in the lung. If the weapon is contagious in human-to-human transmission, you will kill a lot of other people, too. So much death emergent from one particle. Given the right weather conditions, a bioweapon will drift in the air for up to a hundred miles.

Sunlight kills a bioweapon. That is, a bioweapon biodegrades in sunlight. It has a "half-life," like nuclear radiation. This is known as the decay time of the bioweapon. Anthrax has a long decay time -- it has a tough spore. Tularemia has a decay time of only a few minutes in sunlight. Therefore, tularemia should always be released at night.

For many years during the nineteen-fifties and sixties, Bill Patrick had his doubts that bioweapons work. Those doubts were removed decisively during the summer of 1968, when one of the biggest of a long series of open-air biological tests was conducted over the Pacific Ocean downwind of Johnston Atoll, a thousand miles southwest of Hawaii. There, in reaches of open sea, American strategic tests of bioweapons had been conducted secretly for four years. Until very recently, these tests remained unknown to people without security clearances.

"We tested certain real agents, and some of them were lethal," Patrick said. The American strategic tests of bioweapons were as expensive and elaborate as the tests of the first hydrogen bombs at Eniwetok Atoll. They involved enough ships to have made the world's fifth-largest independent navy. The ships were positioned around Johnston Atoll, upwind from a number of barges loaded with hundreds of rhesus monkeys.

Late one afternoon, Bill Patrick went out to Johnston Atoll and stood on the beach to watch a test. At sunset, just as the sun touched the horizon, a Marine Phantom jet flew in low, heading on a straight line parallel to the beach, and then continued over the horizon. Meanwhile, a single pod under its wings released a weaponized powder. The powder trailed into the air like a whiff of smoke and disappeared completely. This was visual evidence that the particles were flying away from one another. Patrick's patents worked.

The scientists call this a line-source laydown. The jet was disseminating a small amount of biopowder for every mile of flight (the exact amount is still classified). One can imagine a jet doing a line-source laydown over Los Angeles, flying from the San Fernando Valley to Long Beach, releasing dust from a single pod under the wing. It would take a few minutes. The jet would appear on radar, but the trail of bioweapon would be invisible. In Iraq, United Nations inspectors found a videotape of an Iraqi Phantom jet doing a line-source laydown over the desert. The technique looked precisely like the American laydowns, even to the Iraqis' use of a Phantom jet. The one difference was that the Iraqi Phantom had no pilot: it was a remote-controlled drone.

At Johnston Atoll, the line of particles moved with the wind over the sea, somewhat like a windshield wiper sweeping over glass. Stationed in the path of the particles, at intervals extending many miles away, were the barges full of monkeys, manned by nervous Navy crews wearing biohazard spacesuits. The line of bioparticles passed over the barges one by one. Then the monkeys were taken back to Johnston Atoll, and over the next few days half of them died. Half of the monkeys survived, and were fine. Patrick could see, clearly enough, that a jet that did a laydown of a modest amount of military bioweapon over Los Angeles could kill half the city. It would probably be more efficient at causing human deaths than a ten-megaton hydrogen bomb.

"What was the agent you used?" I asked Patrick.

"I don't want to tell you. It may still be classified. The real reason is that a lot of countries would like to know what we used, and not just the Iraqis. When we saw those test results, we knew beyond a doubt that biological weapons are strategic weapons. We were surprised. Even we didn't think they would work that well."

[PLEASE SEE THE PROJECT SHAD/112 THREADS FOR MORE INFORMATION ON THESE TESTS. THIS ARTICLE WAS WRITTEN BEFORE THEY WERE DECLASSIFIED, BEGINNING IN THE YEAR 2000]

Meanwhile, there is strong suspicion that at some of the more visible laboratories weapons-related genetic engineering is being conducted. Genetic engineering, in military terms, is the creation of genetically altered viruses and bacteria in order to enhance their power as weapons. This work can be done by altering an organism's DNA, which is the ribbonlike molecule that contains the organism's genetic code and is found in every cell and in every virus particle. Three months ago, researchers at the Center for Applied Microbiology at Obolensk -- the place south of Moscow where Biopreparat once developed and mass-produced hot strains of Black Death for Soviet missiles and weapons systems -- published a paper in the British medical journal Vaccine describing how they'd created a genetically engineered anthrax. The Obolensk anthrax, they reported, was resistant to the standard anthrax vaccine.

~~~~~~~

More recently, Alibek claims, the Vector researchers may have created a recombinant Ebola-smallpox chimera. One could call it Ebolapox. Ebola virus uses the molecule RNA for its genetic code, whereas smallpox uses DNA. Alibek believes that the Russian researchers made a DNA copy of the disease-causing parts of Ebola, then grafted them into smallpox. Alibek said he thinks that the Ebolapox virus is stable -- that is, that it will replicate successfully in a test tube or in animals -- which means that, once created, Ebolapox will live forever in a laboratory, and will not uncreate itself. Thus a new form of life may have been brought into the world.

"The Ebolapox could produce the form of smallpox called blackpox," Alibek says. Blackpox, sometimes known as hemorrhagic smallpox, is the most severe type of smallpox disease. In a blackpox infection, the skin does not develop blisters. Instead, the skin becomes dark all over. Blood vessels leak, resulting in severe internal hemorrhaging. Blackpox is invariably fatal. "As a weapon, the Ebolapox would give the hemorrhages and high mortality rate of Ebola virus, which would give you a blackpox, plus the very high contagiousness of smallpox," Alibek said.

Bill Patrick became exasperated. "Ken! Ken! I think you've got overkill here. What is the point of creating an Ebola smallpox? I mean, it would be nice to do this from a scientific point of view, sure. But with old-fashioned natural smallpox you can bring a society to its knees. You don't need any Ebolapox, Ken. Why, you're just gonna kill everybody."

"I suspect that this research has been done," Alibek said calmly.

Lev Sandakhchiev, the head of Vector, strongly denies this. "In our center we developed vaccinia-virus recombinants with VEE viruses and some others," he says. Vaccinia is a harmless virus related to smallpox. It is used for making vaccines.

"How much do you think it would cost to create genetically engineered smallpox?" I asked Alibek.

"This is not expensive." He paused, thinking. "A few million dollars. This is what it cost us for making the smallpox-VEE chimera at Vector in 1990 and 1991.

~~~~~~~~~~

TERRORISM is the uncontrolled part of the equation. A while ago, Richard Butler, who is the head of the United Nations Special Commission weapons-inspection teams in Iraq, remarked to me, "Everyone wonders what kinds of delivery systems Iraq may have for biological weapons, but it seems to me that the best delivery system would be a suitcase left in the Washington subway."

Could something like that happen? What would it be like? The truth is that no one really knows, because lethal bioterror on a major scale has not occurred. At one point in my talk with Ken Alibek in Bill Patrick's kitchen that winter afternoon, we took a break, and the former master bioweaponeers stood on the lawn outside the house, looking down on the city of Frederick. The view reaches to the Mt. Airy Ridge, a blue line in the distance. Clouds had covered the sun again.

Patrick was squinting east, with a professional need to understand the nuances of wind and cloud. "The wind is ten to twelve miles an hour, gusting a bit." He pointed to smoke coming from a building in the valley. "See the smoke there? It's drifting up a little, but see how it hangs? We have sort of an inversion today, not a good one. I'd say it's a good day for anthrax or Q fever."

Alibek lit a cigarette and watched the sky. He appraises weather the same way Patrick does.

Suddenly Patrick turned on his heel and went into his garage. He returned in a few moments carrying a large mayonnaise jar. He unscrewed the cap. The jar contained a fine, creamy, fluffy powder, with a mottled pink tinge. The pink was the dried blood of chicken embryos, he explained. "This is a simulant for VEE." It was a fake version of the weaponized brain virus. It was sterile, and had no living organisms in it. It was harmless.

The VEE virus can-be grown in weapons-grade concentration in live chicken embryos. When the embryos are swimming with virus particles, you break open the eggs (you had better be wearing a spacesuit), and you harvest the sick embryos. You freeze-dry them and process them into a powder using one of Patrick's secret methods.

He shook the jar under my face. The blood-tinged powder climbed the sides of the jar. A tendril of simulated bioweapon reached for my nose.

Instinctively, I jerked my head back.

Patrick walked across the lawn and stood by an oak tree. Suddenly he extended his arm and heaved the contents of the jar into the air. His simulated brain-virus weapon blasted through the branches of a dogwood tree and took off in the wind, heading straight down a meadow and across the street, booming with celerity toward Frederick. Within seconds, the aerosol cloud had become invisible. But the particles were there, moving with the breeze at a steady ten to twelve miles an hour.

Alibek watched, tugging at his cigarette, nonchalant, mildly amused. "Yeah. You won't see the cloud now."

"Some of those particles'll go eighteen to twenty miles, maybe to the Mt. Airy Ridge," Patrick remarked. The simulated brain virus would arrive in Mt. Airy in less than two hours. He walked back and put his hand on Alibek's shoulder, and smiled.

Alibek nodded.

"What are you thinking?" I asked Alibek.

He pursed his lips and shrugged. "This is not exciting for me."

Patrick went on, "Say you wanted to hit Frederick today, Ken, what would you use?"

Alibek glanced at the sky, weighing the weather and his options. "I'd use anthrax mixed with smallpox."

WILLIAM CAPERS PATRICK III RAN PROJECT 112/SHAD FROM FORT DETRICK, MARYLAND AND AT ONE POINT STATED,

"you never connected it to people"



COMPLETE ARTICLE HERE:

http://www.hackvan.com/pub/stig/articles/bioweapons.htm

[J.B. Stone]

THE CURRENT CONDENSED GOVERNMENT "NITTY GRITTY" PER THE U.S. BIO-CHEMICAL WEAPONS RESEARCH PROGRAM:

[MY THANKS TO FRANK TETRO OF SEATTLE, ANOTHER SHAD VETERAN!]

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

The Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook, which has become affectionately known as the "Blue Book," has been enormously successful - far beyond our expectations. Since the first edition in 1993, the awareness of biological weapons in the United States has increased dramatically.

Over 100,000 copies have been distributed to military and civilian health care providers around the world, primarily through USAMRIID's on-site and road Medical Management of Biological Casualties course and its four annual satellite broadcasts on this subject.

This fourth edition has been completely re-edited and updated. New chapters have been added on melioidosis, the medical management of a biological weapon attack, and the use of epidemiologic clues in determining whether an outbreak might have been intentionally spread.

In addition, a reference appendix has been added for those interested in more in-depth reading on this subject. Our goal is to make this a reference for the health care provider on the front lines, whether on the battlefield or in a clinic, who needs basic summary and treatment information quickly. We believe we have been successful in this regard.

We appreciate any feedback that might make future editions more useful. Thank you for your interest in this important subject.

SHORT, SEGMENTED VERSION IN PDF & WORD FORMATS:

http://www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebook.html

USAMRIID's MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
OF BIOLOGICAL CASUALTIES HANDBOOK
Fourth Edition February 2001

Blue Book Title and Disclaimer
Word (1 MB)
PDF (30 KB)

Introduction and Blue Book
Word (286 KB)
PDF (234 KB)

Appendix A: Glossary of Medical Terms
Word (60 KB)
PDF (33 KB)

Appendix B: Patient Isolation Precautions
Word (24 KB)
PDF (12 KB)

Appendix C: BW Agent Characteristics
Word (27 KB)
PDF (15 KB)

Appendix D: BW Agent Vaccines, Therapeutics and Prophylactics
Word (41 KB)
PDF (19 KB)

Appendix E: Medical Sample Collections for BW Agents
Word (39 KB)
PDF (21 KB)

Appendix F: Specimens for Laboratory Diagnosis
Word (22 KB)
PDF (9 KB)

Appendix G: BW Agent Laboratory Identification
Word (27 KB)
PDF (11 KB)

Appendix H: Differential Diagnosis - Toxins vs. Nerve Agents
Word (20 KB)
PDF (7 KB)

Appendix I: Comparative Lethality - Toxins vs. Chemical Agents
Word (21 KB)
PDF (9 KB)

Appendix J: Aerosol Toxicity
Word (24 KB)
PDF (7 KB)

Appendix K: References and Emergency Response Contacts
Word (107 KB)
PDF (42 KB)

1. Palm OS Version: (145 KB)
"MMBCH4.02.zip" is designed for Palm Pilot users to download to their handheld units. The "Read.me" file contains user instructions.

2. MS Word version: (1.69 MB)
"MMBCH4 Word Ver 4.02.doc" is designed for the user to download, printout, and place in a 3-ring binder.

3. Adobe Acrobat version: (370 KB)
"MMBCH4.0 PDF Ver 4.02.pdf" is designed for the user to download, printout, and place in a 3-ring binder.

4. MS Word Version (with hyperlinks): (1.65 MB)
"MMBCH4.0 Ver 4.02 with Links.doc" is designed for the user who wants to be able to quickly navigate thru the handbook on their computer screen using the hyperlink capability. Recommend this version for Hospital ER's or for Notebook computer users who want the handbook stored on their hard drive.

~~~~~~~

GOOGLE.COM SEARCH STRING:

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=U ... gle+Search

CACHED HTML VERSION:

http://216.239.57.104/search?q=cache:4u ... n&ie=UTF-8

FULL ADOBE ACROBAT PDF VERSION:

www.usamriid.army.mil/education/blueboo ... er4-02.pdf

[96 PAGES...!!!]

INTRODUCTION

Medical defense against biological warfare or terrorism is an area of study unfamiliar to most military and civilian health care providers during peacetime. In the aftermath of Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm, it became obvious that the threat of biological attacks against our soldiers was real. Increased incidents and threats of domestic terrorism (e.g., New York City World Trade Center bombing, Tokyo subway sarin release, Oklahoma City federal building bombing, Atlanta Centennial Park bombing) as well as numerous anthrax hoaxes around the country have brought the issue home to civilians as well. Other issues, including the disclosure of a sophisticated offensive biological warfare program in the Former Soviet Union (FSU), have reinforced the need for increased training and education of health care professionals on how to prevent and treat biological warfare casualties. Numerous measures to improve preparedness for and response to biological warfare or terrorism are ongoing at local, state, and federal levels.

Training efforts have increased both in the military and civilian sectors. The Medical Management of Chemical and Biological Casualties Course taught at both USAMRIID and USAMRICD trains over 560 military medical professionals each year on both biological and chemical medical defense. The highly successful 3-day USAMRIID satellite course on the Medical Management of Biological Casualties has reached over 40,000 medical personnel over the last three years. Through this handbook and the training courses noted above, medical professionals will learn that effective medical countermeasures are available against many of the bacteria, viruses, and toxins which might be used as biological weapons against our military forces or civilian communities.

The importance of this education cannot be overemphasized and it is hoped that our physicians, nurses, and allied medical professionals will develop a solid understanding of the biological threats we face and the medical armamentarium useful in defending against these threats. The global biological warfare threat is serious, and the potential for devastating casualties is high for certain biological agents.

There are at least 10 countries around the world currently that have offensive biological weapons programs. However, with appropriate use of medical countermeasures either already developed or under development, many casualties can be prevented or minimized. The purpose for this handbook is to serve as a concise pocket-sized manual that will guide medical personnel in the prophylaxis and management of biological casualties. It is designed as a quick reference and overview, and is not intended as a definitive text on the medical management of biological casualties.

HISTORY OF BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AND CURRENT THREAT

The use of biological weapons in warfare has been recorded throughout history. Two of the earliest reported uses occurred in the 6th century BC, with the Assyrians poisoning enemy wells with rye ergot, and Solon’s use of the purgative herb hellebore during the siege of Krissa. In 1346, plague broke out in the Tartar army during its siege of Kaffa (at present day Feodosia in Crimea). The attackers hurled the corpses of plague victims over the city walls; the plague epidemic that followed forced the defenders to surrender, and some infected people who left Kaffa may have started the Black Death pandemic which spread throughout Europe.

Russian troops may have used the same tactic against Sweden in 1710. On several occasions, smallpox was used as a biological weapon. Pizarro is said to have presented South American natives with variola-contaminated clothing in the 15th century, and the English did the same when Sir Jeffery Amherst provided Indians loyal to the French with smallpox-laden blankets during the French and Indian War of 1754 to 1767. Native Americans defending Fort Carillon sustained epidemic casualties which directly contributed to the loss of the fort to the English. In this century, there is evidence that during World War I, German agents inoculated horses and cattle with glanders in the U.S. before the animals were shipped to France.

In 1937, Japan started an ambitious biological warfare program, located 40 miles south of Harbin, Manchuria, in a laboratory complex code-named “Unit 731”. Studies directed by Japanese General Ishii continued there until 1945, when the complex was burned. A post World War II investigation revealed that the Japanese researched numerous organisms and used prisoners of war as research subjects. Slightly less than 1,000 human autopsies apparently were carried out at Unit 731, mostly on victims exposed to aerosolized anthrax. Many more prisoners and Chinese nationals may have died in this facility - some have estimated up to 3,000 human deaths.

Following reported overflights by Japanese planes suspected of dropping plague-infected fleas, a plague epidemic ensued in China and Manchuria. By 1945, the Japanese program had stockpiled 400 kilograms of anthrax to be used in a specially designed fragmentation bomb. In 1943, the United States began research into the use of biological agents for offensive purposes. This work was started, interestingly enough, in response to a perceived German biological warfare (BW) threat as opposed to a Japanese one.

[IT IS WIDELY RUMORED THAT THE U.S. HIRED EXPATRIATE JAPANESE AND NAZI "SCIENTISTS" FROM THESE VARIOUS PROGRAMS AFTER WWII, UNDER THE CIA CODE NAME, "OPERATION PAPERCLIP"...!!!]

The United States conducted this research at Camp Detrick (now Fort Detrick), which was a small National Guard airfield prior to that time, and produced agents at other sites until 1969, when President Nixon stopped all offensive biological and toxin weapon research and production by executive order.

[PROJECT 112/SHAD, PLEASE SEE OTHER THREADS FOR MORE INFORMATION]

Between May 1971 and May 1972, all stockpiles of biological agents and munitions from the now defunct U.S. program were destroyed in the presence of monitors representing the United States Department of Agriculture, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the states of Arkansas, Colorado, and Maryland. Included among the destroyed agents were Bacillus anthracis, botulinum toxin, Francisella tularensis, Coxiella burnetii, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Brucella suis, and Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. The United States began a medical defensive program in 1953 that continues today at USAMRIID. In 1972, the United States, UK, and USSR signed the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, commonly called the Biological Weapons Convention.

Over 140 countries have since added their ratification. This treaty prohibits the stockpiling of biological agents for offensive military purposes, and also forbids research into such offensive employment of biological agents. However, despite this historic agreement among nations, biological warfare research continued to flourish in many countries hostile to the United States. Moreover, there have been several cases of suspected or actual use of biological weapons. Among the most notorious of these were the “yellow rain” incidents in Southeast Asia, the use of ricin as an assassination weapon in London in 1978, and the accidental release of anthrax spores at Sverdlovsk in 1979.

Testimony from the late 1970’s indicated that Laos and Kampuchea were attacked by planes and helicopters delivering aerosols of several colors. After being exposed, people and animals became disoriented and ill, and a small percentage of those stricken died. Some of these clouds were thought to be comprised of trichothecene toxins (in particular, T2 mycotoxin). These attacks are grouped under the label “yellow rain”. There has been a great deal of controversy about whether these clouds were truly biological warfare agents. Some have argued that the clouds were nothing more than feces produced by swarms of bees. In 1978, a Bulgarian exile named Georgi Markov was attacked in London with a device disguised as an umbrella. The device injected a tiny pellet filled with ricin toxin into the subcutaneous tissue of his leg while he was waiting for a bus. He died several days later.

On autopsy, the tiny pellet was found and determined to contain the toxin. It was later revealed that the Bulgarian secret service carried out the assassination, and the technology to commit the crime was supplied by the former Soviet Union. In April, 1979, an incident occurred in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the former Soviet Union which appeared to be an accidental aerosol release of Bacillus anthracis spores from a Soviet Military microbiology facility: Compound 19. Residents living downwind from this compound developed high fever and difficulty breathing, and a large number died. The Soviet Ministry of Health blamed the deaths on the consumption of contaminated meat, and for years controversy raged in the press over the actual cause of the outbreak.

All evidence available to the United States government indicated a massive release of aerosolized B. anthracis spores. In the summer of 1992, U.S. intelligence officials were proven correct when the new Russian President, Boris Yeltsin, acknowledged that the Sverdlovsk incident was in fact related to military developments at the microbiology facility. In 1994, Meselson and colleagues published an in-depth analysis of the Sverdlovsk incident (Science 266:1202- 1208). They documented that all of the cases from 1979 occurred within a narrow zone extending 4 kilometers downwind in a southerly direction from Compound 19. There were 66 fatalities of the 77 patients identified.


In August, 1991, the United Nations carried out its first inspection of Iraq’s biological warfare capabilities in the aftermath of the Gulf War. On August 2, 1991, representatives of the Iraqi government announced to leaders of United Nations Special Commission Team 7 that they had conducted research into the offensive use of Bacillus anthracis, botulinum toxins, and Clostridium perfringens (presumably one of its toxins). This open admission of biological weapons research verified many of the concerns of the U.S. intelligence community. Iraq had extensive and redundant research facilities at Salman Pak and other sites, many of which were destroyed during the war.

[THE QUESTION STILL REMAINS AS TO THE WHEREABOUTS OF THESE DOCUMENTED ITEMS...???]


In 1995, further information on Iraq’s offensive program was made available to United Nations inspectors. Iraq conducted research and development work on anthrax, botulinum toxins, Clostridium perfringens, aflatoxins, wheat cover smut, and ricin. Field trials were conducted with Bacillus subtilis (a simulant for anthrax), botulinum toxin, and aflatoxin. Biological agents were tested in various delivery systems, including rockets, aerial bombs, and spray tanks. In December 1990, the Iraqis filled 100 R400 bombs with botulinum toxin, 50 with anthrax, and 16 with aflatoxin. In addition, 13 Al Hussein (SCUD) warheads were filled with botulinum toxin, 10 with anthrax, and 2 with aflatoxin. These weapons were deployed in January 1991 to four locations. In all, Iraq produced 19,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin (nearly 10,000 liters filled into munitions), 8,500 liters of concentrated anthrax (6,500 liters filled into munitions) and 2,200 liters of aflatoxin (1,580 liters filled into munitions).


The threat of biological warfare has increased in the last two decades, with a number of countries working on the offensive use of these agents. The extensive program of the former Soviet Union is now primarily under the control of Russia. Former Russian president Boris Yeltsin stated that he would put an end to further offensive biological research; however, the degree to which the program was scaled back is not known. Recent revelations from a senior BW program manager who defected from Russia in 1992 outlined a remarkably robust biological warfare program, which included active research into genetic engineering, binary biologicals and chimeras, and industrial capacity to produceagents.

[THE WORDS "WEST NILE VIRUS", "RECOMBINANT DNA", AND "SARS" COME TO MIND AT THIS JUNCTURE...]

[MANY TONS OF THESE AGENTS ARE RUMORED TO HAVE BEEN RELEASED ON THE BLACK MARKET TO TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS WILLING TO PAY ANY PRICE FOR THE TECHNOLOGIES AND BASIC MANUFACTURING AND RESEARCH COMPONENTS...]

There is also growing concern that the smallpox virus, now stored in only two laboratories at the CDC in Atlanta and the Institute for Viral Precautions in Moscow, may be in other countries around the globe. There is intense concern in the West about the possibility of proliferation or enhancement of offensive programs in countries hostile to the western democracies, due to the potential hiring of expatriate Russian scientists.

It was reported in January 1998 that Iraq had sent about a dozen scientists involved in BW research to Libya to help that country develop a biological warfare complex disguised as a medical facility in the Tripoli area. In a report issued in November 1997, Secretary of Defense William Cohen singled out Libya, Iraq, Iran, and Syria as countries “aggressively seeking” nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. Finally, there is an increasing amount of concern over the possibility of the terrorist use of biological agents to threaten either military or civilian populations.

There have been cases of extremist groups trying to obtain microorganisms that could be used as biological weapons. The 1995 sarin nerve agent attack in the Tokyo subway system raised awareness that terrorist organizations could potentially acquire or develop WMD's for use against civilian populations. Subsequent investigations revealed the organization had attempted to release botulinum toxins and anthrax on several occasions.

The Department of Defense has been leading a federal effort to train the first responders in 120 American cities to be prepared to act in case of a domestic terrorist incident involving WMD. The program will be handed over to the Department of Justice on October 1, 2000. In the past two years, first responders, public health and medical personnel, and law enforcement agencies have dealt with the exponential increase in biological weapons hoaxes around the country. Certainly the threat of biological weapons being used against U.S. military forces and civilians is broader and more likely in various geographic scenarios than at any point in our history. Therefore, awareness of this potential threat and education of our leaders, medical care providers, public health officials, and law enforcement personnel on how to combat it are crucial.

MORE FACTORS TO CONSIDER:

Table 1. Epidemiologic Clues of a Biologic Warfare or Terrorist Attack

• The presence of a large epidemic with a similar disease or syndrome,
especially in a discrete population

• Many cases of unexplained diseases or deaths

• More severe disease than is usually expected for a specific pathogen or failure to respond to standard therapy

• Unusual routes of exposure for a pathogen, such as the inhalational route for diseases that normally occur through other exposures

• A disease that is unusual for a given geographic area or transmission season

• Disease normally transmitted by a vector that is not present in the local area

• Multiple simultaneous or serial epidemics of different diseases in the same population

• A single case of disease by an uncommon agent (smallpox, some viral
hemorrhagic fevers)

• A disease that is unusual for an age group

• Unusual strains or variants of organisms or antimicrobial resistance patterns different from those circulating

• Similar genetic type among agents isolated from distinct sources at different times or locations

• Higher attack rates in those exposed in certain areas, such as inside a building if released indoors, or lower rates in those inside a sealed building if released outside

• Disease outbreaks of the same illness occurring in noncontiguous areas

• A disease outbreak with zoonotic impact

• Disease normally transmitted by a vector that is not present in the local area

• Disease outbreaks of the same illness occurring in noncontiguous areas

• Similar genetic type among agents isolated from distinct sources at different times or locations

Migratory Birds....WEST NILE VIRUS [WNV] from Cuba to the U.S. ???

~~~~~~~~~~~

• Unusual routes of exposure for a pathogen, such as the inhalational route for diseases that normally occur through other exposures

The ANTHRAX scare after 9-11...???

~~~~~~~~~

• Unusual strains or variants of organisms or antimicrobial resistance patterns different from those circulating

• More severe disease than is usually expected for a specific pathogen or failure to respond to standard therapy



SARS...???

~~~~~~~~

• A disease that is unusual for a given geographic area or transmission season

WNV...???

~~~~~~~~~

• A single case of disease by an uncommon agent (smallpox, some viral
hemorrhagic fevers)

• A disease outbreak with zoonotic impact


At the onset of hostilities in Afaghanistan, there was the LARGEST outbreak of hemorrhagic fever in medical history in the refugee camps in Pakistan, full of fleeing Afhanis....it was written off as being carried by the food animals they brought with them....MY question against THAT "theory" is "Why didn't the animals KILL THEM at home...???"

Why would they wait until they crossed the border to pass the diseases...???

And, simultaneously, there was an unexplained outbreak of Dengue Fever in Hawaii....very large and hushed up immediately by the World Health Organization and U.S. Government....????

• Unusual strains or variants of organisms or antimicrobial resistance patterns different from those circulating

• Similar genetic type among agents isolated from distinct sources at different times or locations

~~~~~~

I'm not asking anyone to PANIC, just to look at the strong indications of foul play...!!!

Thank You Once More for your patient attention to these tedious and dreadful details.

[J.B. Stone]

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR THE ABOVE-MENTIONED PDF VERSION:

Table of Contents
Introduction 1

History of Biological Warfare and Current Threat 2

Distinguishing Between Natural and Intentional
Disease Outbreaks 6

Ten Steps in the Management of Biological Casualties
on the Battlefield 9

Bacterial Agents 13

Anthrax 14

Brucellosis 19

Glanders and Melioidosis 23

Plague 28

Q Fever 33

Tularemia 37

Viral Agents 43

Smallpox 44

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis 49

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers 54

Biological Toxins 62

Botulinum 63

Ricin 70

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B 74

T-2 Mycotoxins 78

Detection 82

Personal Protection 83

Decontamination 86

Appendix A: Glossary of Medical Terms
Appendix B: Patient Isolation Precautions
Appendix C: BW Agent Characteristics
Appendix D: BW Agent Vaccines, Therapeutics and Prophylactics
Appendix E: Medical Sample Collection for BW Agents
Appendix F: Specimens for Laboratory Diagnosis
Appendix G: BW Agent Laboratory Identification
Appendix H: Differential Diagnosis - Toxins vs. Nerve Agents
Appendix I: Comparative Lethality - Toxins vs. Chemical Agents
Appendix J: Aerosol Toxicity
Appendix K: References and Emergency Response Contacts

www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebook/Mmbch4AdobePDFVer4-02.pdf

[J.B. Stone]

PLEASE SEE THE NEW PROJECT 112/SHAD INFORMATION AND LINKS PROVIDED HERE:

http://www.freedominion.ca/phpBB2/viewt ... d=b59357ab

THANK YOU...!!!

[J.B. Stone]

AT THIS POINT IN TIME, MORE PEOPLE HAVE SUCCUMBED TO AND DIED FROM MOSQUITO BITES PRODUCING WEST NILE VIRUS SYMPTOMS IN THE CONTINENTAL U.S. THAN HAVE BEEN INJURED AND KILLED IN IRAQ SINCE THE CESSATION OF MAJOR HOSTILITIES....

Yellowstone County man dies of West Nile virus
By the Associated Press

BILLINGS - An elderly Yellowstone County man has died of West Nile virus, the Yellowstone City-County Health Department reported Friday.

The death is Yellowstone County's first from the disease and Montana's second.

Montana has reported 210 human cases of West Nile virus. Nationwide, the virus has infected more than 4,900 people and killed 95.

The Yellowstone County victim died after a stay in a Billings hospital, the announcement said. Officials provided no other details.

Montana's first death from West Nile virus was a Rosebud County man who died earlier this month.

Yellowstone, with 34 people infected as of Friday, has had more human cases than any other county, state health officials said. Roosevelt County was next at 22, and Valley County has had 15.

The virus can cause head and body aches, fever and skin rashes. In rare instances, it can cause brain swelling and death.

West Nile virus first surfaced in Montana in August 2002 in a Yellowstone County horse.

http://missoulian.com/articles/2003/09/ ... news06.txt

THERE IS NO OFFICIAL VERSION OF WHERE THIS ORIGINATED, BY WHOM OR WHAT SOURCE, OR HOW TO DEFEND ONESELF OTHER THAN SWATTING AT BUGS...

[J.B. Stone]

MEANWHILE, BACK AT THE BEGINNING...

Biological Weapons Date To Classic Age
Rossella Lorenzi, Discovery News
Hercules Battles The Serpent Hydra
Hercules Battles The Serpent Hydra

Sept. 24, 2003 — The legendary Trojan War was won with the help of poisoned arrows, in one of the first attempts of biological warfare, according to the first historical study on the origins of bio-terrorism and chemical weapons.

"In this celebrated epic poem about noble heroes fighting honorable battles, both sides actually used arrows dipped in snake venom," said Adrienne Mayor, author of "Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" (published this month by Overlook Press).

Mayor, a classical folklorist in Princeton, N.J., gathered evidence from various archaeological finds and more than fifty ancient Greek and Latin authors, revealing that biological and chemical weapons — horrible even by modern standards — did see action in antiquity.

Toxic honey, water poisoned with drugs, scorpion bombs, chocking gases, conflagrations and incendiary weapons similar to modern napalm were widely used in historical battles. Among victims and perpetrators of biochemical warfare were prominent figures such as Hannibal, Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great.

"The first place we see the use of any kinds of poisons is in the story of how Hercules, the super hero of Greek myth, slew the gigantic, poisonous water-serpent Hydra. He dipped his arrows in the monster's venom, creating the first biological weapon described in Western literature," Mayor said.

The "Iliad" provides several clues to primitive biological warfare. Written about 700 B.C., the poem centers on the war between the Greeks (or Achaeans) and the Trojans, thought to have happened around 1250 B.C.

Through memorable episodes, the poem tells the legendary 10-year siege of Troy by King Menelaus of Greece, who sought to rescue his wife Helen from her abductor prince Paris.

"Several passages hint strongly that poisoned weapons were wielded by warriors on the battlefield, although Homer never said so outright. When Menelaus was wounded by a Trojan arrow, for example, the doctor Machaon rushed to suck out the "black blood." This treatment was the emergency remedy for snake bite and poisoned arrow wounds in real life," Mayor wrote.

Indeed, snake venom does cause black, oozing wounds. The snake species used in the Trojan War were vipers as their dried venom remains deadly for a long time when smeared on an arrowhead.

"I think it is entirely possible that what we would now call biological weapons were used by warriors in antiquity. My favorite example is Odysseus, whose weapon of choice was arrows smeared with poison," Robert Fagles, chairman of the Department of Comparative Literature at Princeton University, and translator of the "Iliad," told Discovery News.

Indeed, Odysseus, the archer renowned for crafty tricks, was the first mythic character to poison arrows with plant toxins, Mayor said. Homer recounts that he sailed to Ephyra, in western Greece, on a quest for a lethal plant — probably aconite — to smear on his bronze arrowheads.

According to Mayor, the possibilities for creating arrow poisons from natural toxins were myriad in the ancient world: "There were at least two dozen poisonous plants that could be used to treat arrows. The most commonly used toxins came from aconite (monkshood or wolfbane), black hellebore (the Christmas rose of the buttercup family), henbane (Hyoscamus niger), hemlock, yew berries and belladonna (deadly nightshade)," she said.

Other toxic substances used for arrows and spears included venomous jellyfish, poison frogs, dung mixed with putrified blood, the toxic insides of insects, sea urchins and stingray spines. Odysseus himself was killed by a spear tipped with a stingray spine, wielded by his estranged son by the witch Circe.

"This is an important contribution to the history of chemical and biological weapons. Mayor makes a convincing case that these weapons have roots deep in human prehistory, and that they were actually used," biochemical warfare expert Mark Wheelis of University of California, Davis, told Discovery News.

http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20 ... iowar.html

It's not QUITE over yet...

[J.B. Stone]

AND NOW...BACK TO THE FUTURE:

Bioterror fears go beyond anthrax
By SETH MULLER
Sun Staff Reporter
09/11/2003




If a dozen terrorists infected themselves with the smallpox virus, waited to become contagious, and boarded a subway in New York, they could infect as many as 1,000 people in a few short rides.

And those 1,000 people could infect the entire world population in 180 days. This with a virus that has at least a 30 percent mortality rate and leaves its survivors disfigured, mentally deficient and sometimes deaf or blind.

That's what Northern Arizona University biochemistry professor Paul Torrence calls a worst-case bioterrorism scenario. There's also a number of other scenarios that are not good, either.

"We are open to a variety of threats," Torrence said of bioterrorism. "You could never defend against all of the possibilities."

Earlier this year, Torrence and his colleague Edgar Civitello received a $500,000 grant from the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases to find a new drug to treat smallpox. They're also trying to develop a drug to fight complications of the vaccine, which, in rare cases, can cause death.

They represent one of several research teams working to discover a way to counter the deadly virus.

The importance of their work becomes all too apparent on the second anniversary of the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks.

When it comes to bioterrorism, Torrence said there is no greater threat than smallpox. It's worse than anthrax and worse than all other infectious diseases.

Babb Financial Group
This is because the virus can become airborne, it's highly contagious and it can wipe out a massive population.

"It's the poor man's atomic bomb," said Torrence, in a Tuesday interview with the Daily Sun. "You don't need a biotech industry to create smallpox. ... It's the perfect weapon."

It's also an available weapon. Federal reports show that the Soviet Union manufactured 100 tons of smallpox virus as a biochemical warfare agent before the country disbanded. That much smallpox is enough to kill the world population multiple times over.

Where much of that 100 tons of virus ended up is not completely known, Torrence said.

If terrorists decided to unleash smallpox in the U.S., a mass effort to vaccinate could take place, and a number of people would survive as a result of the vaccination. But, the vaccination itself carries a number of problems.

Of 300 million people vaccinated, about 300,000 would suffer from adverse side effects, about 4,000 to 15,000 people would suffer from life-threatening complications and 300 to 600 people would die, according to the Center for Disease Control.

The odds for those who get the vaccine, which has to happen within a few days of contracting the virus, are better than those who have smallpox and go without it. Still, Torrence and Civitello are working to find drugs to counter vaccine complications, along with drugs that would fight the virus itself.

According to Torrence, the resources in the U.S. and the overall health of the population gives us a much better advantage than the developing world.

So, for the terrorist that unleashes smallpox on U.S. soil, a possible irony awaits. The virus would most likely spread and wipe out far greater populations of developing countries in the Middle East, Africa and Asia.

"There's a chance we would see a ricochet effect," Torrence said.

Still, the United States has a long way to go to escape vulnerability, but Torrence believes that education, a stronger public health system and more enforceable international treaties on bioterrorism weapons could would go a long way in protecting the population.

A January study by the New England Journal of Medicine showed that most people knew little to nothing about the disease. In a survey of 1006 people asked whether they thought smallpox was contagious, 111 said no. And 87 percent of those surveyed said it was either "very likely" or "somewhat likely" that a person would survive smallpox. The correct answer was "not very likely."

Torrence said the public should be educated, so they understand the disease and the threat. He added that a strong public health system with vigilant surveillance of signs of smallpox would allow for a faster and more effective response.

"We can reduce the risk," he said.

Reporter Seth Muller can be reached at 913-8607 or smuller@azdailysun.com

http://www.azdailysun.com/non_sec/nav_i ... ryID=72848

PLEASE BEAR THIS STORY IN MIND AS LITERALLY MILLIONS OF MUSLIMS PREPARE FOR RAMADAN AND TRIPS TO HOLY CITIES SUCH AS MECCA...



~~~~~~~~~~

We should NOT look solely to the Mid East when maintaining our guard...


North Korean Chem Weapons Expert Tries to Defect, Then Disappears
By Patrick Goodenough
CNSNews.com Pacific Rim Bureau Chief
September 09, 2003

Pacific Rim Bureau (CNSNews.com) - Human rights campaigners are concerned about the fate of a North Korean man, said to be a non-conventional weapons expert, who has gone missing after a foiled attempt to defect to a Western diplomatic mission in China.

Volunteers working with an underground network helping North Korean refugees said Dr. Ri Chae-woo was caught as he tried to enter Australia's consulate-general in the southern port city of Guangzhou at the weekend.

A source working with the network said from China Tuesday they had been unable to get any further information about the case since then.

Norbert Vollertsen, a German doctor who now works with North Korean refugees, said Ri had likely been arrested by Chinese security personnel. His wife and two teenage children, who were in the vicinity of the consulate when Ri was caught, are unaccounted for.

Beijing has stepped up security at diplomatic missions after a rash of defections in recent years, and it routinely repatriates North Korean refugees, up to 300,000 of whom are believed to be hiding out in China.

Another member of the network, Korean-American pastor Douglas Shin, said it was possible the would-be defector had instead been picked up by U.S. agents who had intercepted him.

Shin said by phone from Los Angeles he had notified senior U.S. government officials two days beforehand about the planned defection, and was hopeful that Ri may now be in safe custody.

"I hope he's in good hands," he said, adding that the knowledge Ri possessed could "save a lot of lives."

Vollertsen and Shin said Ri had information that could be enormously valuable to the U.S., having worked in North Korea's chemical and biological weapons program until as recently as June, when he fled his homeland and went into hiding in China.

According to Shin, Ri had in his possession documents and photographs detailing biochemical experiments on human subjects.

He said the material could possibly corroborate claims made by a number of North Korean refugees - including some whose statements Shin had personally taken or translated - who had some experience with Pyongyang's chemical or germ warfare programs, but could provide no proof to back up their stories.

Shin said the number of senior North Korean officials who were leaving the country is increasing - from one or two a year several years ago, to a couple a month now.

Refugees hiding out in China or who made it to South Korea said rumors and speculation about the state of the regime were rife, causing uncertainty.

Shin said someone like Ri did not leave North Korea because he was starving. "He was just uneasy about the regime's survival. He wanted to fall on the safe side, rather than be caught" and punished for his role in atrocities.

Ri was evidently accosted in the stairwell, according to Shin and Vollertsen. The mission is on the 15th floor of a skyscraper in Guangzhou.

A spokeswoman for Australia's department of foreign affairs in Canberra said Tuesday the consulate-general had no knowledge of the incident.

"If it happened, it must have been too far away and we were completely unaware," she said. "We didn't hear anyone try to get into the office, we didn't hear any scuffles."

Vollertsen worked as a physician in North Korea for 18 months in 1999 and 2000, but was expelled after speaking out about human rights abuses perpetrated by a government he accuses of systematically starving its own people.

On the occasion of North Korea's 55th anniversary, marked with military pomp Tuesday, he expressed the hope that the Kim Jong-il regime would share the fate of the former Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe in the late 1980s.

He recalled the East German government holding a mass military parade in East Berlin in October 1989 to mark the 40th anniversary of the founding of the German Democratic Republic. Two months later, the Berlin Wall came down and the regime collapsed, in part because of the flood of refugees headed for the West via Hungary.

"As a German who witnessed the fall of the Berlin Wall I understand the destabilizing impact an exodus of refugees can have on totalitarian regimes," he said.

The activist network would continue its efforts to try to encourage a mass exodus of refugees from North Korea, in the hope it would help to hasten Pyongyang's demise, Vollertsen said.

Meanwhile, it's reported from Seoul that the most senior North Korean yet to have defected will visit the U.S. for the first time next month, at the invitation of the Washington-based Defense Forum Foundation.

Now living in South Korea, Hwang Jang-yeop, who was secretary of North Korea's ruling Workers Party at the time of his defection in 1997, will brief U.S. officials on the regime.

Local media reports say previous attempts by Hwang to travel to the U.S. had been stymied by South Korea's National Intelligence Service, which said it could not guarantee his safety abroad.

He told the conservative Chosun Ilbo newspaper that South Korea's previous administration - which initiated the "sunshine" policy of reconciliation with the North - had blocked his travel plans because they feared it would upset North Korea.

According to its website, the Defense Forum Foundation has previously brought to Capitol Hill several North Korean defectors, including high-ranking officials and former inmates of political prisoner camps.

http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewForeignBurea ... 0909a.html

Only time and timely intelligence work will tell...

[J.B. Stone]

IF YOU'RE NOT INCLINED TO READ ALL THIS MATERIAL...PERHAPS YOU COULD BUY SOME MICROWAVE POPCORN AND RENT A VIDEO OR TWO...??

http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/de ... lance&st=*

Description

In September 2001, three leading journalists on the staff of the New York Times published the provocative and disturbing results of their investigation into biological weapons. For months, Nova’s cameras followed the journalists as they pursued their inquiries. Bioterror reveals for the first time how the U.S. planned to bomb Cuba with biological weapons during the 1961 missile crisis, tours abandoned germ war factories built on a frightening scale by the former Soviet Union, and takes an exclusive look at current U.S. work on bioweapons. Is this new research an essential protection against the next terrorist attack? Or a provocative violation of the international treaty banning offensive development?

~~~~~~

YOU CAN EVEN WATCH FOR FREE:

Canada AM: Bioterror and Iraq
- Ret. Major General William Nash discusses the risk of biological weapons being developed in Iraq with Canada AM's Lisa LaFlamme.


Washington deaths confirmed as anthrax
- Washington D.C.'s Health Director, Dr. Ivan Walks, confirms two area postal workers who handled mail for Capitol Hill died of anthrax.

Canada AM: The future of bioterror
- Henry Kelly, President of the Federation of American Scientists discusses the longterm threat of bioterrorism.

http://www.globeandmail.com/special/att ... 11023.html

THESE ARE GREAT FOR A FIRST DATE AS THEY MAKE WOMEN WANT TO CUDDLE...

HERE'S A HANDY GLOSSARY TO IMPROVE YOUR PROWESS IN THESE MATTERS:

BIOTERROR BUGS

09/03/03

The national Centers for Disease Control and Prevention classifies potential bioterror agents in three groups based on the ease of dissemination and the risk of death.
From Our Advertiser


CLASS A

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis): Spore-forming bacterium. Used in the still-unsolved attack that killed five people when spore-laced letters were mailed in fall 2001. Can be fatal if not treated with antibiotics.

Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin): Nerve toxin produced by this bacterium in improperly canned foods causes rare but serious paralytic illness. Fatal in about 8 percent of cases.

Plague (Yersinia pestis): Bacterium carried by rodents and fleas. Could be used in aerosol attack. Fever, nausea, vomiting and death can ensue without antibiotic treatment in the first 24 hours.

Smallpox (variola major): Perhaps the most-feared biological agent. Highly contagious virus causes fever, vomiting and pus-filled blisters, and is 30 percent fatal. No cases reported worldwide since 1977 because of vaccines. New research by OHSU says those already vaccinated may retain immunity far longer than previously thought.

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis): Hardy bacterium spread by rodents, ticks and deerflies. Symptoms include sudden fever, chills, headaches, muscle aches, weakness and pneumonia. Can be fatal if not treated with antibiotics.

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (Ebola, Marburg, Lass and others): Deadly group. Patients with severe cases show signs of bleeding under the skin, in internal organs or from the mouth, eyes or ears, but usually die of other causes. With few exceptions, there is no treatment.

CLASS B

Brucellosis (Brucella species): Bacterium spread among farm animals. In humans, it can cause flulike symptoms and chronic fevers, joint pain and fatigue. Treated with antibiotics.

Food safety threats (Salmonella, E. coli, shigella): Salmonella was used in the fall of 1984 by disciples of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh to sicken 751 people in The Dalles, the first large biological attack in the United States.

Q fever (Coxiella burnetii): Bacterium carried by cattle, sheep, and goats. Causes fever, severe headache, confusion, sore throat, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain. Treated with antibiotics.

Ricin toxin: A poison made from waste left from processing castor beans. Can be in powder, mist or pellet form, or dissolved in water. If inhaled, it causes difficulty breathing; the skin might turn blue. Potentially fatal; there is no antidote.

Others: Staphylococcal enterotoxin B; Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii); viral encephalitis; Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringen; Glanders (Burkholderia mallei); Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei); Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)

CLASS C

Nipah virus: Emerging disease first identified in Singapore and Malaysia in 1999 and associated with exposure to pigs among patients who died of febrile encephalitis, a swelling of the brain.

Hantavirus: Identified after an unexplained outbreak in May 1993 in the Southwest in which previously healthy young adults suddenly developed acute respiratory symptoms. About half died. The virus is spread in rodent droppings. There is no cure. Source: National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

http://www.oregonlive.com/science/orego ... 284260.xml

Have a Nice Night...

There is no cure. Source: National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

BETTER THAN FREDDY KREUGER, EH...???



IT'S REAL

[J.B. Stone]

CANADIAN, BRITISH, AND U.S. INVOLVMENTS INTERTWINED:

BRITISH DOCUMENTS

WO 188/653/4/5/6 War cabinet BW Committee minutes and papers correspondence 1939-56

WO 188/658 Operations panel of BW Committee and Technical Sub committee of Interservice Biological Warfare Committee minutes and Papers 1944-46

WO 188/659/660/661/662/663/664/665 Inter service Sub Committee on BW minutes and papers 1945-51

WO 188/667/ 671/673 Biological Research Advisory Board (B.R.A.B.) minutes correspondence and papers 1946-50

WO 188/701 Porton Biology Section monthly progress reports 1941-47

WO 188/702 Co-ordination of research into Chemical Warfare between Britain, Canada and USA 1943-50

WO 188/703 BW correspondence with various authorities 1946-55

WO 188/704/705 BW reports and correspondence 1946-55

WO 188/707 Suffield experimental station, Alberta field trial reports and correspondence

WO 188/706 BW research and development programmes 1947-50.

WO 195/9172/9305/9339/9449/9572/9630/9857/10135/10196/10527/10656 Biological Research Advisory Board (BRAB) minutes of various meetings

WO 195/9536 BRAB Annual report 1947 comments by Hanky

WO 195/9523 BRAB Report of visit to USA and Canada

WO 195/9589 BRAB MRD Porton research programme 1948

WO 195/9843 BRAB U.S. Chemical Corps progress report 1947

WO 195/9763 BRAB Annual Progress Report and Research and Development for 1947-48 Porton and Sutton Oak

CAB 81/53 BW series COS. Sub-committee chaired by Hanky February 1940 to June 1942

CAB 81/19 CCW(L) series COS. Sub committee on employment of chemical warfare against Japan under Air Ministry Chairmanship May-Dec 1944

CAB 81/55 BW(P) Series BW (policy panel) chaired by Ernest Brown January 1944

CAB 81/56 BW(O) Series COS. Sub committee on BW (operation panel) chaired by Ernest Brown January 1944

CAB 81/58 BW(D) Series COS. Sub committee on BW (defence) chaired by Duff Cooper March 1943 to April 1944

WO 188/651 Porton Biological committee, notes of meetings and related papers 1940-42

WO 188/652 Porton Executive Committee, minutes of meetings 1942

WO 188/688 Information from P.O.Ws and others re Intelligence on the development of Biological Warfare by the Enemy 1944-45

WO 188/699 Correspondence on BW between Britain, Canada and the USA

WO 188/700 BW general correspondence 1941-46

WO 195/9088 BRAB Development of Biological Warfare research

WO 195/9280 BRAB Programme of Research and Development for 1947-48

WO 203/4571B SEAC War Criminals Personalities in Singapore September 1945

WO 203/4926B SEAC Trials of War Criminals August 1945 to December 1945

WO 203/4927B SEAC Trials of War Criminals December 1945 to May 1946

AMERICAN DOCUMENTS

R.G.112 Records of the Surgeon Generals Office (Army).

R.G.153 Office of the Judge Advocates Office General (Army) and the International Affairs Office \par Division, War Crimes Branch.

R.G.319 Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2 Intelligence, Document Library Branch, Intelligence Documents files, 1944-1953 and Publications Files, 1929-1951.

Record 28 R.G.319 Paget page 3.................... Record 15 R.G.319 Paget page 7.

R.G.331 Allied Operational and Occupation Headquarters, World War 11, Supreme Commander Allied Powers, Legal Section, Administrative Division, Investigative Reports and Civil Property Custodian Section.

R.G.338 EUCOM Operational Division.



http://www.btinternet.com/~m.a.christie/docmnt.htm

Truths, Half truths and Damn Lies

After the program "Unit731 Did the Emperor Know?" shown on Independent Television in Britain on 13th August 1985, in the program accusations were made regarding experiments conducted on Prisoners of War in a camp called Hoten, Mukden, Machuria in which my father was held captive. I asked "what did the Ministry of Defense Know of these allegations? and what documents they had?"

I wrote to the United States Department of Defence History Department and this is a reply I received dated 5th October 1989, Edwin Drea,

Then a collection of documents approximately 500 in number, arrived at my door from the United States. It took some time to look through them, there was one that I examined closely. I sent this with one of my letters to the Ministry of Defence asking for an explanation.

Eventually I received a reply, >

Earl Arran Conservative said "That a limited number of people have heard in "general terms" that the United States authorities had found evidence that suggested the use of "humans" in such experiments" But no prisoners of war! A tacit agreement that we have evidence of a war crime.
From one extreme to the other. The time between these two statements, a mere 5 YEARS. More than enough time to examine just what they had, and to destroy any suggestion of evidence that might embarrass past and future Ministers of Defence. What did he mean by 'General Terms' ?

What was the evidence that changed their minds, and mine? Document dated 18th January 1946 Military Intelligence G2 USA Army >

Col. Padget--(British BW Representative).1 copy.

Sir Bernard Charles Tolver PAGET, GCB, DSO, MC, aide-de-camp, Military Intelligence. Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry, British Army. note there is the reference to the fact that "information of similar BW nature is regularly made"

I then asked if it were possible to obtain a copy of this report here in Britain, to my Member of Parliament Sir Jack Ashley, a man who's integrity and veracity is above question. Both he and Sir Bernard Braine MP, asked if they could see it on 'Privy Council' terms.

For two of our most venerable Members of Parliament to be refused to see them on Privy Councilor terms beggars belief. And just what was in those documents that was so secret then, that Sir Jack ASHLEY and Sir Bernard BRAINE could not see FILE WO188/659



General WAITT Joint Chief of Staff during the War in AMERICA
My conclusions, of the evidence regarding the Captives in Hoten Mukden. I have no hard evidence that they were used. For hard evidence of this nature, you would need to examine documents that are still classified in the Archives of JAPAN and AMERICA.

But it does make one thing clear. That the British government conspired in a deal with the American Joint Chiefs of Staff and the commander in the far east General Douglas McArthur and his second in command Major Gen Charles A Whilloughby and his cohorts, that allowed the Japanese Butchers of UNIT 731 and 100 to escape War Crimes.

In my oppinion McArthur and Whilloughby could be considerd the second world wars most profesional war crimials by aiding and abbetting a WAR CRIME.


Major Gen Charles A Whilloughby
the war criminals favorite General

In reading this very brief re'sume', may I make the following statement to you. The reason that I have researched this, as I have said, my father. I hold no political agenda. To me all politicians are the same. But I have regarded two such as, not so much politicians, but as Honest Joes and the third a fighter for the Truth. My thanks to the very honorable LORD JACK ASHLEY OF STOKE (Labor), LORD BERNARD BRAIN, RIP.(Conservative) and my fathers Member of Parliament, DAFYDD WIGLEY Esq. (Plyd Cwmre) Who tirelessly assisted me in my endeavors to uncover the TRUTH, from a place that in 'my opinion' denies all knowledge of the word, the British and American, Ministry's of Defence

To the Ministry of Defence in the United Kingdom and Department of Defence in the United States of America your motto should be

"Lie, Lie, Lie again, and if Evidence to the contrary is provided, Still lie"

A New Book
"Biological Warfare Unit 731 –American Immunity to Japanese Army’s War Crime"
by Fuyuko Nishisato

published by Kusanone Shuppan-kai

Sheldon Harris, 74, World War II Historian
nytimes.obituaries

JAPAN ADMITS DISSECTING WW-II POWs
The following article was written by Thomas Easton of the Baltimore Sun

UKUOKA, Japan "I could never again wear a white smock," says Dr. Toshio Tono, dressed in a white running jacket at his hospital and recalling events of 50 years ago. "It's because the prisoners thought that we were doctors, since they could see the white smocks, that they didn't struggle. They never dreamed they would be dissected.

The prisoners were eight American airmen, knocked out of the ksy over southern Japan during the waning months of World War II, and then torn apart organ by organ while they were still alive.

What occurred here 50 years ago this month, at the anatomy department of Kyushu University, has been largely forgotten in Japan and is virtually unknown in the United States. American prisoners-of-war were subjected to horrific medical experiments. All of the prisoners died. Most of the physicians and assistants then did their best to hide the evidence of what they had done.

Fukuoka is midway between Hiroshima and Nagasaki, cities that are planning elaborate ceremonies to mark the devestation caused by the United States dropping the first atomic bombs. But neither Fukuoka nor the university plans to mark its own moment of infamy.

The gruesome experiments performed at the university were variagions on research programs Japan conducted in territories it occupied during the war. In the most notorious of these efforts, the Japanese Imperial Army's Unit 731 killed thousands of Chinese and Russians held prisoner in Japanese-occupied Manchuria, in experiments to develop chemical and biological weapons.

Ken Yuasa, now a frail, 70-year-old physician in Tokyo, belonged to a military company stationed just south of Unit 731's base at Harbin, Manchuria. He recalls joining other doctors to watch as a prisoner was shot in the stomach, to give Japanese surgeons practice at extracting bullets.

While the victim was still alive, the doctors also practiced amputations.

"It wasn't just my experience," Yuasa says. "It was done everywhere.".

Kyushu University stands out as the only site where Americans were incontrovertibly used in dissections and the only known site where experiments were done in Japan.

On May 5, 1945, an American B-29 bomber was flying with a dozen other aircraft after bombing Tachiaral Air Base in southwestern Japan and beginning the return flight to the island fortress of Guam.

Kinzou Kasuya, a 19-year-old Japanese pilot flying one of the Japanese fighters in pursuit of the Americans, rammed his aircraft into the fuselage of the B-29, destroying both planes.

One of the Americans died when the cords of his parachute were severed by another Japanese plane. A second was alive when he reached the ground. He shot all but his last bullet at the villagers coming toward him, then used the last bullet on himself.

Two others were quickly stabbed or shot to death.

At least nine were taken into custody.

B-29 crews were despised for the grim results of their bombing raids, so some of the captives were beaten.

The local authorities assumed that the most knowledgeable was the captain, Marvin Watkins. He was sent to Tokyo for interrogation, where he was tortured but nonetheless survived the war.

Every available account asserts that a military physician and a Colonel in a local regiment were the two key figures in what happened next. What happened cannot be easily explained. Perhaps caring for the Americans was an impossible burden, especially because some were injured. Perhaps food was scarce.

Whatever the reason, the colonel and doctor decided to make the prisoners available for medical experiments, and Kyushu University became a willing participant.

Teddy Ponczka was the first to be handed over to the doctors and their assistants. He had already been stabbed, in either his right shoulder or his chest. According to Tono, the American assumed he was about to be treated for the wound when he was taken to an operating room.

But the incision went far deeper. A doctor wanted to test surgery's effects on the respiratory system, so one lung was removed. the wound was stitched closed.

How Teddy Ponczka died is in dispute. According to US Military records, he was anesthetized during the operation, and then the gas mask was removed from his face. A surgeon, Taro Torisu, reopened the incision and reached into Ponczka's chest. In the bland words of the military report, "Torisu stopped the heart action".

Tono remembers events differently. The first experiment was followed by a second, he says. Ponczka was given intravenous injections of sea water, to determine if sea water could be used as a substitute for sterile saline solution, used to increase blood volume in the wounded or those in the state of shock. Tono held the bottle of sea water. He says Ponczka bled to death.

Then it was the turn of the others.

The Japanese wanted to learn whether a patient could survive the partial loss of his liver. They wanted to learn if epilepsy could be controlled by removing part of the brain.

According to US Military records, physicians also operated on the prisoners' stomachs and necks.

All of the Americans died.



"There was no debate among the doctors about whether to do the operations ... that is what made it so strange," Tono says.

Word of the experiments eventually leaked out.

Thirty people were brought to trial by an Allied War Crimes Tribunal in Yokohama, Japan, on March 11, 1948. Charges included vivisection, wrongful removal of body parts and cannibalism ... based on reports that the experimenters had eaten the livers of the Americans.

Of the 30 defendants, 23 were found guilty of various charges. (For lack of proof, the charges of cannabilism had been dismissed.) Five of the guilty were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment. The other 14 were sentenced to shorter terms.

But the attitude of the American occupation forces began to change largely because of the start of the Korean War in June 1950.

The United States had less interest in punishing Japan, an enemy-turned-ally.

In September 1950, US General Douglas MacArthur, as supreme commander for Allied Forces, reduced most of the sentences.

By 1958, all those convicted were free.

None of the death sentences was carried out.

^Drea stated that "There is no question that the Japanese carried out experiments on Chinese, Koreans and Russians during world war two and that some of these experiment delt with biological warfare--that fact is indisputable"

[J.B. Stone]

AND, YOU THOUGHT THIS WAS ALL NEW..???

THINK AGAIN:

PREFACE

The Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, tasked by the TRADOC Commander, developed The Integrated Battlefield Bibliography. It encompasses the literature of NBC warfare during the period of 1945-1965, now part of the historical record of Army doctrinal changes. The Integrated Battlefield Bibliography contains a variety of sources which record the thoughts, ideas, and research of U.S. and foreign writers who, in the period of time under consideration, faced a doctrinal shift from conventional warfare to a battlefield which they believed would be dominated by NBC weapons.

The selection of material for the bibliography was based on set criteria. Each item originated in the given time period or appeared later but dealt with matters of concern to the military at that time. Another factor in the selection process was a perceived need by commanders at all levels, instructors at TRADOC schools, authors of field manuals, or military personnel who might merely wish to learn more about various aspects of NBC warfare. Technical documents were not part of this survey. The eight major categories, which emerged after the bulk of the material was reviewed and selected, are: COMMAND/CONTROL, DOCTRINE/ORGANIZATION, LOGISTICS/ SUPPORT, MEDICAL, SOVIET, TACTICS/OPERATIONS, TRAINING/PERSONNEL and WEAPONRY/EQUIPMENT.

Entries include magazine and journal articles, government contract studies, maneuver reports, field manuals, official reports, student research papers and books by private authors. A significant number of documents are from the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) bibliographies and the annual Air University Periodical Index. Many collections were researched by Combat Studies Institute staff with the thoughtful assistance of the staffs of the Combined Arms Research Library at Fort Leavenworth, the Library of Congress, the U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, DC, the Army Library at the Pentagon, the National War College, Fort McNair, and the Concepts and Studies Division, U.S. Army Chemical School, Fort McClellan. In addition, Combat Studies Institute sent requests to possible source locations throughout TRADOC for information on historical "Integrated Battlefield" literature. A variety of useful sources were received by using this method. Special thanks for contributions go to the U.S. Army Infantry School, U.S. Army Engineer School, U.S. Army Combat Developments Experimentation Command, Defense Information School, U.S. Army Quartermaster School, U.S. Army Institute for Military Assistance (Marquat Memorial Library), U.S. Army Aviation Center, Transportation Technical Information and Research Center and the U.S. Army Military History Institute.

Each item was first categorized and then entered according to a standard bibliographical format. Although most studies prepared by research corporations or government agencies list authors, several items are listed by title only, especially those found at the Concepts and Studies Division, U.S. Army Chemical School, Fort McClellan. Some entries have additional descriptive information in parentheses. At the end of each entry the source of the document is indicated (a complete list of abbreviations precedes the text). The one exception is magazine and journal articles which are available at most DOD installations. A number of classified documents were discovered in the course of the research and those with unclassified titles are listed with the appropriate security classification at the end of the entry.

Questions concerning the bibliography should be directed to the Combat Studies Institute, Attn: ATZL-SWI-R, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027, Autovon 552-2840.

http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources ... eller2.asp

DOCUMENT LOCATION ABBREVIATIONS


ADS . . . . U.S. Army Air Defense School, Fort Bliss, TX

AL. . . . . Army Library, Pentagon, Washington, DC

CARL. . . . Combined Arms Research Library, Fort Leavenworth, KS

CDE . . . . Combat Developments Experimentation Command, Ord, Fort CA

CDQ . . . . U.S. Army Quartermaster School, Directorate of Combat Development, Fort Lee, VA

CMH . . . . U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, DC

CS. . . . . U.S. Army Chemical School, Concepts and Studies Division, Fort McClellan, AL

DIS . . . . Defense Information School, Main Library, Fort Benjamin Harrison, IN

ENG . . . . U.S. Army Engineer School, Fort Belvoir, VA

FAS . . . . U.S. Army Field Artillery School, Fort Sill, OK

JPRS. . . . Joint Publications Research Service, Arlington, VA

LC. . . . . Library of Congress, Washington, DC

MHI . . . . U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, PA

NAIL . . . . Institute for Military Assistance, Marquat Memorial Library, Fort Bragg, NC

NWC . . . . National War College, Fort McNair, Washington, DC

TTI . . . . Transportation Technical Information and Research Center, Fort Eustis, VA

~~~~~~~~~~~

Boyson, William A. "Psychological Shock: A Problem of Command." Military Review, March 1963, 34-40.

"Army Chemical Corps Moves to Put New Organization into Operation." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 26 November 1955, 17.

"Bacteriological Warfare." Military Review, April 1950, 106-110.

Batten, James K. "Chemical Warfare in History." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1960, 16-17+.

Bay, Charles H. "The ROAD Chemical Operations Sergeant--a Boost for CBR Readiness in the Battalion." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, June 1964, 8+.

"Biological Warfare." Air Intelligence Quarterly, July 1947.

"Biological Warfare: Radio Interview with Gen. Bullene." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1954, 16-18.

Blakeley, H. W. "The ABC of War." Combat Forces, June 1953, 36-41.

Brophy, L. P. "The Issue of Gas Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1955, 20-21.

Bullene, E. F. "The Chemical Corps: Special Squad." Reserve Officer, April 1952, 8-11, 20.

______. "The Needs of the Army." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July 1952, 8-11.

Canadian Army Manual... See Section VI, TACTICS/OPERATIONS.

Capabilities for CW and BW (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (April 1959). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

"Chemical-Biological Warfare." Editorial. Ordnance, May-June 1966, 623.

"Chemical Corps Studies Reorganization Assignment." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January-February 1962, 4+.

"Chemical Warfare and the Future." Ordnance, November-December 1960, 362.

Concepts for Employment of Toxic Chemical Warfare (U). Army Chemical Center, MD: U.S. Chemical Corps Board, 23 May 1958. NWC (SECRET)

Concepts for the Employment of Biological Weapons 1968-1972 (U). Carlisle Barracks, PA: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, Institute of Advanced Studies, February 1965. CS (SECRET)

Cooper, Gershon and McKean, Roland N. Are We Sure About Dispersal? Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, (1952). NWC

Creasy, William M. "Biological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, September-October 1954, 18-19.

______. "Biological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January 1952, 16-18.

______. "The Forward Look in the Army Chemical Corps." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July-August 1957, 26-27+.

DePuy, William E. "The Case for a Dual Capability." Army, January 1960, 32-34+.

The Development and Use of Biological and Chemical Weapons (U). Vol. I. Orientation (U). Philadelphia, PA: The Institute for Cooperative Research, University of Pennsylvania, (July 1964). CS (SECRET)

Eliot, George Fielding. "Single Concept: Road to Disaster." Marine Corps Gazette, October 1961, 20-25

Fair, Stanley D. "What's Wrong with Gas Warfare." Student Paper, Army War College, 1957. MHI

Foulkes, C. H. "Chemical Warfare Now." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1961, 5-6+

Gardner, John H. Chemical and Biological Warfare (U). Fort McNair, DC: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (21 January 1950). DTIC (CONFIDENTIAL)

Garfield, L., et al. Performance Effectiveness Comparison of the Air Assault Division with U.S. ROAD and Other Proposed Divisions. Los Angeles, CA: Planning Research Corporation, (March 1965). DTIC

Gundel, B. Heinz. "The Case for CB Weapons." Ordnance, January-February 1963, 435-437.

Harrigan, Anthony. "The Case for Gas Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, June 1963, 12-13.

Hayes, J. J. "Realistic Thinking about CBR Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, May-June 1956, 22-24+.

Historical Trends Related to Weapon Lethality. Washington, DC: Historical Evaluation and Research Organization, CARL

Jacobs, Walter Darnell. "Not the Smallest--the Best!" (U.S. Army's doctrine governing the employment of nuclear weapons.) Military Review, March 1963, 68-72.

Jacobson, K. H. "The Military Chemical Program." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July-August 1957, 40-41.

Johnston, G. A. "The Future of Biological Warfare." Australian Army Journal, August-September 1948, 44-46.

Johnston, George H. Some Recent Factors Influencing the Composition and Employment of U.S. Military Forces. Washington, DC: National War College, (16 March 1963). NWC (OFFICIAL USE ONLY)

Kennedy, William V. "CBR War--the X Factor." Ordnance, July-August 1963, 50-52.

Kerver, Thomas J. "The Need is for Sheer Superiority of Numbers and Armament." Army, December 1961, 59-62.

Kieffer, John Elmer. The Influence of Mass-Destruction Weapons Upon Warfare. Washington, DC: National War College, 21 January 1954. NWC

_______. "Unused Weapon." Military Review, January 1965, 54+.

Laforet, E. S. "Specific Problems of Bacteriological Warfare." Swiss General Military Journal, January 1951, 40-47.

Leonard, C. F. "Mass Destruction Weapons and the Principles of War (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1953. MHI (TOP SECRET)

Liddell Hart, Basil Henry. "Atoms or Gas?" Marine Corps Gazette, January 1960, 14-16.

Lilley, C. W. "Organization and Composition of the Infantry Division (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1952. MHI (SECRET)

Lindquist, Paul A. "Chemical and Biological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, May-June 1959, 23-24.

Martel, Giffard, Sir. "The Trend of Future Warfare." Military Review, July 1948, 81-84.

McNamara, Robert S. "Our Military Strategy and Force Structure." Army Information Digest, February 1964, 38-43.

Merck, George W. "Biological Warfare." (Report to the Secretary of War) The Military Surgeon, March 1946, 237-242.

Miksche, Ferdinand Otto. "The Organization of Future Armies." Military Review, January 1957, 73-85.

Miller, Harvey. "CBR Warfare." Military Engineer, March-April 1955, 125+.


Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount. "Organization for War in Modern Times." Royal United Service Institution Journal, November 1955, 509-531.

Munchmeyer, L. W. "Radiological Warfare: A Message from Our A. F. C. A. President." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1954, 8.

"The Nature of Future War." (Condensed from Section III of A Program for National Security, the Report of the President's Advisory Commission on Universal Training.) Infantry Journal, July 1947, 19-22.

Needels, E. Van Rensselaer "US-UK-Canada Collaboration in Chemical and Biological Warfare (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1956. MHI (SECRET)

Norris, John G. "Bitter '30-Day War' Argument Splits Pentagon." The Washington Post and Times Herald Outlook, 6 November 1955, E1. CARL

"Organization Chart--Department of the Army--Chemical Corps." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, April 1952, 49.

"Organization of the Army Chemical Corps." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1956, 18+.

Pardee, Robert E. "CBR Warfare and Logistics." Military Review, April 1963, 90-97.

Pena, A. P. "Bacteriological Warfare." Military Review, December 1954, 73-77.

Perry, William R. "Chemical Support for the Battle Group." Infantry, March-April 1961, 55-56.

Phair, John J. "The Threat of Bacteriological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January-February 1954, 14-16.

Philbrook, F. R. "What of Biological Warfare?" Ordnance, March-April 1951, 399+.

Pickett, George B. "Squeeze 'Em an' Blast 'Em." (Consideration of new doctrine, tactics, techniques, etc., in the face of nuclear war.) Military Review, September 1955, 56-60.

[YA GOTTA LOVE THESE WACKY, FUN LOVING GUYS...!!! ]

Prall, J. A. "Unconventional Methods of Warfare (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1953 MHI (TOP SECRET)

"Principal Organizations Having CBR Missions." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, June 1964, 14+.

"Proposed Charts for Chemical Corps Reorganization." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January-February 1962, 15-18.


Roy, B. K. "ABC Warfare." Military Review, August 1955, 96-103.

Sackton, Frank J. "A Basic Fighting Force." Military Review, March 1960, 34-43.

Sheppard, H. E. "The Potential of Toxic Chemical Agents in Land Combat (1965-70 Period) (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1956. MHI (SECRET)

Stubbs, Marshall. "CBR Gets More Emphasis." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 3 June 1961, 1+.

"The Team of Mobile Warfare--Armor and Airborne." Armor, March-April 1955, 4-6.

U.S. Department of the Army. Armed Forces Doctrine for Chemical and Biological Weapons Employment and Defense. FM 101-40. April 1964. CARL

____. Assistant Chief of Staff for Force Development. CBR Operational Summary for Force Development (U), 1963. Washington, DC, 1963. NWC (SECRET)


____. Chemical Smoke Generator Battalion, and Chemical Smoke Generator Company. FM 3-50. January 1959. INF

____. Chemical Smoke Generator Units and Smoke Operations. FM 3-50. April 1967. INF

U.S. War Department. Biological Warfare: Report to the Secretary of War. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1946. NWC

"Use of Smoke in War." Army & Navy Register, 10 February 1945, 1.

Vardanega, R. "A New Nature of War." Military Review, May 1958, 71-73.

White, Theodore H. "An Interview With General James M. Gavin: Tomorrow's Battlefield." Army Combat Forces Journal, March 1955, 20-23.

Wiesmann, Ernst. "Bacteriological Warfare." Military Review, April 1950, 106+.

Wilcox, Howard A. "Facing the Realities of Chemical and Biological Weapons." Army, January 1960, 11+.

Worley, Marvin L. A Digest of New Developments in Army Weapons, Tactics, Organization, and Equipment. Harrisburg, PA: The Stackpole Company, 1959. CARL

Basis for Antipersonnel Chemical and Biological Munitions Day of Supply (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (June 1960). CS (SECRET)

Dolan, Michael J. "Farewell to the Ropple Dopple." Army, August 1956, 46-48.

Fair, Stanley D. "Wining and Dining under Chemical Attack: An Approach to Troop Shelters in a Toxic Chemical Environment." Army, February 1963, 32-34.

[HEY, WHAT WINE GOES WITH VX GAS...??? ]

Ley, J. B. K. "Water Supply in Nuclear, Bacterial and Chemical Warfare." Australian Army Journal, February 1957, 5+.

McDonald, Thomas J. "Logistics and the Superweapons." Military Review, November 1955, 39-46.

Operational and Logistical Concepts for Chemical and Biological Modules for Army Drone Systems (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, CBR Agency, (August 1964). CS (SECRET)

Pardee, Robert E. "CBR Warfare and Logistics." Military Review, April 1963, 90-97.

Recovery and Decontamination Measures After Biological and Chemical Attack. Washington, DC: Science Communication Incorporated, (March 1963). DTIC

_____. Handling of Deceased Personnel in Theaters of Operation. (App. V, Recovery and Processing of Radioactively Contaminated Remains.) FM 10-63. July 1959. CARL

Alexander, Stewart F. "Medical Report of the Bari Harbor Mustard Casualties." The Military Surgeon, July 1947, 1-17.

[MUST NOT HAVE READ, "WINING & DINING"...ABOVE...??? ]

"Biological Warfare Potentialities." Monthly Health Report. Washington, DC: HQ, Military District of Washington, (August 1949), 13.

Bordes, Peter A., et al. DESERT ROCK I: A Psychological Study of Troop Reactions to an Atomic Explosion. Alexandria, VA: George Washington University, Human Resources Research Office, (February 1953). CARL
[SUBTITLE, "SCARED SHITLESS"...???]

Boyson, William A. "The Neglected Nuclear Weapons Effect: Psychological Shock--A Result of Catastrophe." Student Paper, CGSC, 1962. CARL

BW Field Decontamination Requirements (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, May 1960. CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Casualty Producing Effects of Biological Weapons (U). Brooke Army Medical Center, Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical Service, Combat Development Group, (May 1962). CS (SECRET)

CBR Protection (U). Phase II. CW and BW Detection and Alarms (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (March 1959). CS (SECRET)

_____. Phase III. CW and BW Protection (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (January 1960). CS (SECRET)

_____. Phase IV. Collective Protection (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (March 1960). CS (SECRET)

_____. Phase V. Radiological Warfare Protection (U). Fort McClellan, 7E*.- U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (February 1959). CS (SECRET)

"Chemical Corps Chief Says Aerosols May Be Used for Mass Immunization." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 24 September 1960, 4.

Clark, Dorothy Kneeland. Mustard and Its Employment in Mobile Warfare Against Forces Without Protective Clothing (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (September 1959). DTIC (SECRET)

______. Tactical Significance of Atomic Casualties in Japan. Chevy Chase, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (May 1953). DTIC

[AAAHHH....THE GOOD OL' DAYS...!!!]

_______., and Chapman, William H. "A Critical Analysis of the Syndrome of Acute Total Body Radiation Illness, Its Role in Atomic Warfare and Its Influence on the Future Practice of Military Medicine." The Military Surgeon, January 1949, 7-21.

Crozier, Dan. "Survival in Germ Warfare." Ordnance, March-April 1965, 530.

Dupuy, R. Ernest. "Gas Can Make Cowards." Army-Navy-Air Force Register, 13 December 1958, 1+.

Effects on Humans of Low Concentration of GB Vapor (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: Chemical Research Development Lab, (April 1965). CS (SECRET)

The Effects of a Minor Exposure to GB on Military Efficiency. Poston, U.K.: Defense Experimental Establishment, (August 1954). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Estimation of Casualty Effects Due to Surprise Chemical Attack and Significance of Protective Mask Leakage (U). Project SAMPLES, Phase I U . Fort McClellan, AL: CBR Combat Developments Agency, (August 1964). CS (SECRET)

Field-Experiment, Operations ... See Section VI, TACTICS/OPERATIONS.

Forsyth, Robert W. "Achilles' Heel--the Soldier's Eyes." Armor, September October 1959, 16+.

Fundamental Principles for Planning Decontamination Operations (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (October 1951). CS (SECRET)

Human Factors ... See Section VIII, WEAPONRY/EQUIPMENT.

Implications of Chemical Warfare on the Army Medical Service (U). Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, Medical Services Agency, (February 1966). NWC (SECRET)

Mass Casualties, Treatment and Evacuation (U). Brooke Army Medical Center, Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, Medical Services Agency, (February 1965). CS (SECRET)

McNamara, Bernard P. Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare, as Presented at the Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital. Philadelphia, PA: n.p. 1960. LC

_____. "Treatment of Gas Casualties." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July-August 1960, 24-25.

Medical Aspects of Chemical Corps Board Field Test of Items of Protective Clothing (Project Jackpot) (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Research and Development Lab, (July 1962). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

"Medical Measures . . ." See Section V, SOVIET.

Miles, John L. "Could It Happen to You?" (23 men died and 162 became casualties on 10 May 1918 because 26th Infantry Division at Boucq, St. Agnant, wasn't prepared for a gas attack.) Army, August 1957, 41-43.

Ortenburger, Leigh N., et al. Method of Estimating Casualties Produced by the Inhalation of Toxic Chemicals Disseminated in a Surprise Attack (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (August 1957). DTIC (CONFIDENTIAL)

Principles and Practices of BW Decontamination. Camp Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Biological Labs, (July 1953). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Psychological Aspects ROAD Battalion Operations in a Toxic Environment. Fort Ord, CA: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, (September 1964). CDE

Rand, H. P. "Mental Conditioning of the Soldier for Nuclear War." Military Medicine, February 1960, 116-119.

"Resuscitator Designed to Aid Victims of Nerve Gas Attacks." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1957, 26.

Sachs, A. "Medical Problems of Atomic, Biological, and Chemical Warfare." Military Review, April 1953, 98-107.

Stubbs, Marshall. "Soldier Volunteers Confirm Psychochemical Spell; CBW Support is Sought." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 31 October 1959, 1.

[SEE MK ULTRA, MK NAOMI, MIND CONTROL EXPERIMENTS CONCURRENT WITH PROJECT 112/SHAD ]

Summerson, William H. "Progress in the Biochemical Treatment of Nerve Gas Poisoning." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January-February 1955, 24+.

Uhde, George I. "Some Personal Experiences in the Treatment of War Gas Burns of the Upper Respiratory Tract During World War II." The Military Surgeon, June 1946, 483-487.

Williams, Arthur H., et al. Comparison of Nerve Agent, OP Frag, and Nuclear Fires for Quick Casualties Among Troops Without Overhead Cover (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (July 1959). DTIC (SECRET)

Williams, D. W. Human Survivability: The Chemical and Biological Warfare Threat in Command and Control System Planning. Bedford, MA: Mitre Corporation, (December 1962). DTIC

Williams, D. W. Human Survivability: The Chemical and Biological Warfare Threat in Command and Control System Planning. Bedford, MA: Mitre Corporation, (December 1962). DTIC

Wills, J. H., and Brown, R. V. "The Pharmacology of Nerve Gas Poisoning." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1957, 24+.

Yanka, Donald E. "Mickey Finn on the Battlefield: Some Facts About Chemical Agents that Can Knock Out an Enemy Without Killing Him." Army, April 1960, 28-29.

[SEE CHECHNYAN MUSLIM SEPARATISTS GASSED IN MOSCOW]

Burke, C. V. "The Capabilities and Vulnerabilities of the U.S. Versus the USSR with Respect to Chemical, Biological and Radiological Warfare (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1955. MHI (SECRET)

Cherednichenko, M. I. "The Development of the Theory of the Strategic Offensive Operation, 1945-1953." Translated by Joint Publications Research Service, Alexandria, VA. Voenno-Istoricheskii Zhurnal, August 1976. JPRS

_____. "On Features in the Development of Military Art in the Postwar Period. "In Selected Soviet Military Writings, 1970-75: A Soviet View, 109-123. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.

Clark, Dorothy Kneeland. Soviet Bloc Capabilities and Doctrine in Chemical Warfare and US and Allied Policies (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (August 1959). DTIC (TOP SECRET)

Clews, John C. The Communists' New Weapon: Germ Warfare. London, Eng: Lincolns Prager, 1953. LC

Coggins, Cecil H. "Is Russia Outstripping Us in Weapons of Mass Destruction?" Armed Forces Chemical Journal, September 1963, 7+.

[WOULDN'T WANT THAT, NOW WOULD WE...???]

Drugov, Yu. V., ed. Sanitarno-Khimicheskaya Zashchita (Sanitary Chemical Defense). Translated by Joint Publications Research Service, Alexandria, VA. Moscow: 1959. JPRS LC

Foreign Biological and Chemical Warfare Defense Systems (U). Washington, DC: U.S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center, (December 1965). NWC (SECRET)

Foreign Research on Materials for Combat Clothing, Support, and Supply: Part 1. Cleaning Chemicals. n.p.: U.S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center, November 1966). INF

Gardner, John H. USSR Capabilities in Chemical Warfare (U). Chevy Chase, MD: Operations Research Office, (1 November 1950). DTIC (CONFIDENTIAL)

Henney, E. C. "Soviets Stockpile Lethal Nerve Gas." Army-Navy-Air Force Register, 12 December 1959, 38.

Knoupka, Frantisek, "Dracet Let Chemickaho Vojska." (Twenty years of chemical warfare.) Translated by Leo Kanner Associates. Atom, 1970, 161-162.

Labezov, G. I., and Gromozdov, G. G. "Problems of Bacteriological Defense." Translated by Joint Publications Research Service, Alexandria, VA. Voyenno-Meditsinskiy Zhurnal, 1961, 142-145. JPRS LC

Logistical and Operational Information on Chemical and Biological Material and Organizational Data (U). RED FORCES (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (December 1961). CS (SECRET)

Magnuski, J. "Through an Evil Cloud." Translated by Army Foreign Science and Technology Center, Washington, DC. Zolnierz Polski, 27 February 1965. DTIC (LIMITED DISTRIBUTION)

"Medical Measures after Attack by Mass Attack Weapons." Translated by Joint Publications Research Service, Alexandria, VA. Osnovy Organizatsii Meditsinskogo Obespecheniya Vovsk (Fundamentals of Organizing Medical Care of Troops), 192-202. Moscow: 1961. JPRS LC

Military Hygiene. (Soviet). Fort Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Biological Labs, November 1960. INF

Principles of Medical Defense (Against atomic, bacteriological and chemical warfare). Ed. Ivan Nikolov, Sofia, 1959. MML

Review of USSR Protective Equipment (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (May 1955). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Russian Equipment for Protection Against Gas. Translator unknown. n.p.: n.d. INF (RSTRICTED)

Savkin, V. Ye. The Basic Principles of Operational Art and Tactics (A Soviet View). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. CARL

Sidorenko, A. A. The Offensive (A Soviet View). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. CARL

Sokolovsky, V. D. Military Strategy. 3d Ed. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute, January 1971. DTIC

_____., and Cherednichenko, M. "Revolution in Military Science, Its Importance and Consequences Military Art on a New Stage." Translated by Foreign Technology Division, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Krasnaya Zvezda, 28 August 1964. DTIC

"The Soviet Army--Weapons." (Reprinted from DA Pam 30-50-1.) Air Intelligence Training Bulletin, March 1963, 28+.

Soviet Military Doctrine (U). Washington, DC: U.S. General Staff. Military Intelligence Division, 22 June 1962. INF (SECRET)

"Soviets Training with Chemical Weapons." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1960, 25+

Stubbs, Marshall. "Soviets Speed Production of Germ War Weapons." Army-Navy-Air Force Register, 9 May 1959, 24.

Tanaskovich, Rajko. "Modern Weapons and Partisan Warfare." Translated and digested from Vojno Delo of Yugoslavia, April-May 1961. Military Review, July 1962, 25-33.

U.S. Department of the Army. Handbook on Aggressor Military Forces. (Chapter 11, Sect. III, Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Operations. Chapter 14, Sect. IX, Defense Against Nuclear Effects and Toxic Chemical and Biological Agents. Chapter 19, Sect. I, Nuclear Weapons Systems; Sect. VII, Chemical and Biological Agents Disseminated by Aggressor.) FM 30-102. May 1966. CARL

______. Soviet Military Power (Bibliography). DA Pam 20-65. March 1959. CARL

Vulnerability of Soviet Mechanized Forces to Chemical Weapons System (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command. CBR Agency, (April 1965) INF (SECRET)

Anderson, S. E. "CS and Its Use--Is There a Better Way?" Student Paper, Army War College, 1957. MBI

"Atomic Bombing and Biological Warfare." Military Review, July 1950, 89-93.


Best, Robert J. Effectiveness of V-agents in Ground Combat (U). Bethesda, MD: Research Analysis Corporation, Weapons System Division, (December 1962). NWC (SECRET)

____. The Feasibility of Chemical Warfare in the Defense of a Perimeter in the Nakoton Value Basin. Far East Command: Operations Research Office, January 1951). DTIC

____. The Value of Toxic Chemicals in Ground Warfare (U). Vol. II, Apps. A-K. McLean, VA: Research Analysis Corporation, (October 1961). DTIC (SECRET)

"Biological Warfare, a Possible First Target." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July 1949, 34.

Biological Warfare. Lesson Outline. (Problem #7320-A1) 1959. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, Command and Staff Department, 1959. INF

Bullene, E. F. "Chemicals in Combat." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, April 1952, 4-7.

Caudell, Louis, and Nusbaum, Keith C. "Fabian Tactics and Nuclear Weapons." Military Review, October 1959, 57-64.
[FABIAN....WASN'T HE A SINGER WITH A BIG HAIRDO...???]

CBR Agents in Support of Infantry. Lesson Outline (Problem #7340-A3). 1959. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, Command and Staff Department, 1959. INF

"CBR Has "Greatly Increased" Mission of U.S. Special Forces." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 30 July 1960, 3.

CBR Warfare. Lesson Outline. (Problem #7312-I2). 1958. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, Command and Staff Department, 1958. INF

Chemical and Biological Weapon Employment. Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, (by date). INF

____. Effectiveness of Toxic Chemicals in the Italo-Ethiopian War (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (April 1959). DTIC (CONFIDENTIAL)

____. Effects of Terrain and Weather on the Behavior of Chemical Agents and Munitions (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (November 1959). DTIC (SECRET)

____, and Macy, Josiah. Incapacitating Agents for Use in Tactical Combat (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (June 1959). DTIC (SECRET)

[GROG IS OFTEN EMPLOYED BY THE NAVY...]

____, et al. Effectiveness of GB Weapon Systems (U). Bethesda, MD: Op_erations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (July 1959). DTIC (CONFIDENTIAL)

Clark, Randall L. Non-Destructive Warfare--A Study of Biological and Chemical Warfare. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air War College, (April 1965). DTIC

Comparison of the HE and GB Weapons (U). Fort Sill, OK: U.S. Army Artillery and Missile School, October 1958. CS (SECRET)

Concepts for Use of Antipersonnel Biological Munitions in Support of Army Operations (U): Final Report. Army Chemical Center, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Board, (May 1962). NWC (SECRET)

Creasy, William M. "CBR Attack by Invisible Invader." Army Information Digest, February 1958, 46-53.

Cunin, Kenneth A. "The Offensive and Defensive Use of the Chemical Mortar Battalion." Military Review, January 1949, 45+.

Exercise King Cole, Detailed Plan. Annex 5, CBR Warfare Procedures. Fort Hood, TX: Office of the Deputy Exercise Director, (20 November 1956). CMH

Exercise Mesquite Dune, Final Report, Troop Test, Armor Tactics in Chemical Attack. Camp Irwin, Barstow, CA: Maneuver Director Headquarters, 31 May 1960). CM

Exploitation of Tactical BW (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, (June 1960). CS (SECRET)

Exploitation of Tactical Chemical Warfare (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Corps, (February 1960T.-CS (SECRET)

"Fake Gases." Tactical and Technical Trends, 3 December 1942. INF

Field Experiment, Operations Within CW Contaminated Areas (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Biological Radiological Agency, (October 1963). CDE (CONFIDENTIAL)

Field Experiment, VX Contact Hazard Trials (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, CBR Agency, (October 1962). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)


Fitzgerald, E. F. "Gas!" Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1960, 14+.

Foley, William "Defensive Chemical Warfare Readiness of the United States Army (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1954. MHI (SECRET)

Fothergill, LeRoy D. "Biological Warfare and Its Defense." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, September-October 1958, 4-6+.

Gershater, E. M. "Chemical Agents and Battlefield Mobility." Military Review, June 1963, 37-42.

Gibson, Edwin C., and Moore, E. B. "The Infantry Battle Group--in the Defense." Infantry Magazine, October-November 1959, 4-8.

Hayes, John J. "CBR Warfare." Military Engineer, May-June 1956, 207-208.

Huey, D. E. "Tactical Use of Biological Agents (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1954. MHI (TOP SECRET)

Huie, W. B. "How the Next War Will Be Fought." American Mercury, April 1946, 431-437.
[THE LAST ONE WASN'T EVEN OVER YET...!!!]

Kambrod, Matthew R. "Smoke, a Tactical Concept." Army Aviation Digest, October 1969, 6+.

Kennedy, William V. "CB Defense of the Field Army." Ordnance, March-April 1967, 522+.

Kershaw, A. "Chemical, Biological and Radiological Warfare." Army Quarterly, January 1963, 227-230.

Kleber, Brooks E. "Smog at Anzio." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January February 1961, 2+.

Larson, Carl A. "Biological Operations." Ordnance, January-February 1967, 359-360.

Liddell Hart, Basil Henry. "New Warfare--New Tactics." Canadian Army Journal, April 1956, 24+. Also Marine Corps Gazette, October 1955, 10-13.

_____. "New Warfare--New Tactics. A Rebuttal to a Rebuttal." (Letter) Canadian Army Journal, October 1956, 88-92.

Lowry, Philip H., Clark, Charles R., and Hantzes, Harry N. Tactical Use of RW and Other Retardation Weapons on Highways (U). Chevy Chase, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (December 1955). DTIC (SECRET)

Macy, Josiah. Penetration of Fortifications By Toxic Chemical Agents (U). Bethesda, MD: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, (August 1959). DTIC (SECRET)

Mandrake Root, A Tactical, Chemical, Biological Operations Study (U). Vol. I-VI. Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, CBR Agency, (March 1966). CS (SECRET)

Miles, W. D. "Chemical Warfare in the Civil War." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1958, 26.

Miller, Lloyd G. "The Use of Chemicals in Stability Operations." Military Review, December 1966, 43-47.

Miller, Walter L. "Chemicals vs. Guerrillas." Marine Corps Gazette, July 1964, 37-39.

_____. "Smoke 'Em Out!" Ordnance, November-December 1964, 298-299.

Moore, P. N. W. "Goose Eggs." Military Review, September 1955, 71-78.

Olney, Herbert F. "Gas Attack!" Marine Corps Gazette, May 1964, 27-28.
[MCDONALDS HADN'T STARTED ITS HUGE ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN AS YET...]

Pritchard, P. W., and Dozier, W. T. "Engineers and Chemics at the Roer Crossing." Military Engineer, May-June 1950, 184+.

ROAD Battalion Operations in a Toxic Environment. Vol. 1 - Operational Capability Experiment. Fort Ord, CA: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, Experimentation Command, (December 1963). CDE DTIC

ROAD Battalion Operations in a Toxic Environment. Vol. 2 - Toxic Free Shelter Experiment. Fort Ord, CA. U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, Experimentation Command, (October 1963). CDE DTIC

Shapira, Norman L. "Toxic Chemical Fire Support." Infantry Magazine, November-December 1962, 65-66.

Special Roles for Chemical and Biological Weapons (U). Indianapolis, IN: Applied Science Division, Litton Systems, Inc., (October 1965). CS (SECRET)
[SEE "WINING & DINING", ABOVE...OOOPS...NEVER MIND, I THOUGHT IT SAID "ROLLS"... ]

Stevens, George. "Psychochemicals against Guerrillas?" Army, March 1964, 68+.

[REFERENCE "OPERATION TAIL WIND", VIETNAM...]

Tactical and Strategical Evaluation of RW. Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Field Requirements Agency, (April 1957). CS (SECRET)

Tactical Employment of CBR Agents. Lesson Outline. (Problem #7317-A1). 1958. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, Command and Staff Department, 158. INF

______. (Problem #7319-I1). 1958. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, Command and Staff Department, 1958. INF

Tactical Employment of the Davy Crockett Weapon System (U). n.p.: U.S. Army Infantry Combat Development Agency, 24 January 1963• INF (SECRET)

Tiller, Richard. Impact of Chemical Attacks on Guerrilla Food Crops (U). McLean, VA: Research Analysis Corporation, (April 1964). DTIC (SECRET)

Tuttle, P. V. "The Tactical Use of Nuclear and Chemical Warfare Weapons as a Team (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1955. MHI (SECRET)

U.S. Department of the Army. Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry Battalions. (Chapter 2, Fundamental Considerations of Infantry Combat. Sect. II, General Considerations for Non-Nuclear and Nuclear Warfare.) FM 7-20. May 1965. CARL

_____. Armor Operations. (Chapter 2, Sect. II, Active and Nonactive Nuclear Warfare. App. XX, Tactical Employment and Command Control of Atomic Demolition Munitions. App. XXII, Prediction of Fallout, Chemical Detection and Identification, and Radiological Monitoring and Survey. App. XXIII, Protective Measures Under Conditions of Chemical and Biological Operations and Nuclear Warfare.) FM 17-1. October 1966. CARL

_____. Armored Cavalry Platoon, Troop and Squadron. (Chapter 23, Special Operations Armored Cavalry Units. Sect. II, Chemical, Biological and Radiological Monitoring and Survey.) FM 17-35. February 1960. CARL

_____. Barriers and Denial Operations. (Chapter 3, Sect. III, Artificial Obstacles, Para. 42-44.) FM 31-10. August 1962. CARL

_____. Chemical and Biological Weapons Employment. FM 3-10. February 1962. FAC INF

_____. Chemical Biological and Radiological (CBR) Operations. FM 3-5. September 1961. INF

_____. Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Defense. FM 21-40. December 1968. CARL

_____. Combat Intelligence. (Chapter 10, Sect. 5, Special Purpose Operations. Para. 231, Chemical and Biological Operations. App. H, Reporting Nuclear Detonations, Radioactive Fallout, and Biological and Chemical Attacks, STANAG 2103.) FM 30-5. June 1967. CARL

_____. Defense Against Biological Warfare. FM 21-45. October 1952. INF

_____. Defense Against CBR Attack. FM 21-40. August 1954. INF

_____. Divisional Armored and Air Cavalry Units. (Chapter 14, Special Operations. Sect. II, Chemical Agent Detection and Radiological Monitoring and Survey Operations.) FM 17-36. October 1965. CARL

_____. Employment of Chemical Agents (U). FM 3-10. November 1966. CARL (CONFIDENTIAL)

_____. Employment of Chemical and Biological Agents. (Draft Manuscript.) FM 3-10. May 1965. INF

_____. Employment of Chemical and Biological Agents. FM 3-10. March 1966. INF

_____. Employment of Riot Control Agents Flame Smoke and Herbicides in Counterguerrilla Operations. Training Circular 3-16. July 1966. INF

______. Small Unit Procedures in Atomic Biological and Chemical Warfare. FM 21-40. November 1958. FAS INF

______. Small Unit Procedures in Chemical, Biological and Radiological Operations. FM 21-40. October 1963. INF


______. Tactics and Technique of Chemical Biological and Radiological Warfare. FM 3-5. September 1954. INF

_______. Tactics and Technique of Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR) Warfare. FM 3-5. November 1958. CARL INF

_______. Tank Units: Platoon, Company and Battalion. (App. II, The Battalion Mortar and Davy Crockett Platoon.) FM 17-15. December 1961. CARL

The Value of Toxic Chemicals in Ground Warfare (U). Washington, DC: Research Analysis Corp, (September 1962). CDE (SECRET)

Wiken, A. 0. "The Tactical Use of Chemical Warfare with Nuclear Warfare (U)." Student Paper, Army War College, 1957. MHI (SECRET)

"ABCER Warfare Will Get Field Test in Hugh Army '56 Maneuver Program." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 16 July 1955, 1368.

Analysis of Project RAIN Results (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: Operations Research Group, n.d. . CS (SECRET)

Anekaitis, William H. "Realistic CBR Training." Army, September 1964, 35-37.

Barker, M. E. "The Chemical Corps School." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July 1948, 26-29, 57.

CBR Warfare Instructional Guide for the Artillery School. Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps School, 1955. FAC

Chemical Biological and Radiological Warfare (CBR) Training in the Continental US Armies. Fort Monroe, VA: Headquarters, U.S. Army Field Forces, 1953. NWC

Coddington, L. C. "Elimination of Current Chemical Warfare Training Program from the Curriculum of the Training Command." Staff Study, 2d Command Class, CGSC, 6 June 1946. CARL

"Desert Strike Forces Ready." Air Force Times, 20 May 1964, 8.

"Desert Warfare." (Pictorial Desert Strike.) Air University Review, November-December 1964, 19-30.

Functions, Organization and Training of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Warfare Specialist Personnel (1963-69). Quantico, VA: Marine Corps Landing Force Development Center, 1963. DTIC

"Here is What You Should Know About Biological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, April 1951, 6-9, 52-53, 56.

Jarvis, J. R. "Take the Mystery Out of CBR." Army, October 1957, 44+.

"Joint Task Force 132." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 22 November 1952, 339.


McClain, Terrence W. "Let's Stop Kidding Ourselves." Infantry Magazine, March-April 1963, 30+.
[HEY...ONE ACTUALLY MAKES SENSE...!!!]

A Method for Integrating BW Play into Maneuvers. Ft. McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Training Command, Doctrine Division, 24 May 1955. MHI

Miles, John L. "Let's Put Sense in CBR Training." Combat Forces, December 1954, 33-36.

Miller, W. L. "Integrate Your CBR Training." Army, April 1956, 34-35.

Palmer, John M. "Chemical Warfare Training." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1960, 28-29+.

Requirements for Chemical Corps-Trained Officers by MOS, Army in the Field 1961-1965 (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Field Requirements Agency, (June 1960). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Tactical Troop Test to Determine the Effectiveness of a Rocket Battalion Firing GB-Filled (4.5) inch Rockets(U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (November 1957). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)
[THAT'S IN THE MIDDLE OF MARYLAND]

"Training Program in Chemical and Biological Weapons."Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March 1963, 22-23.

U.S. Department of the Army. CBR Training Exercises. FM 21-48. November 1954. INF

_____. Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR), and Nuclear Defense Training Exercises. FM 21-48. September 1964. INF

_____. Chemical Biological, and Radiological (CBR) and Nuclear Defense Training Exercise. FM 21-48. September 19 . CARL

______. Field Artillery Cannon Battalions and Batteries. (App. II, Chemical Biological.and Nuclear Training. FM 6-40. June 1965.

______. Soldier's Handbook for Chemical and Biological Operations and Nuclear Warfare. FM 21-41. April 1963. INF

______. Soldier's Handbook for Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare. FM 21-41. December 1958. FAC INF

______. Soldier's Manual for Defense Against CBR Attack. FM 21-41. 1953. INF


______. Training Exercises and Integrated Training in Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Warfare. FM 21-48. August 1960. INF

______. What You Should Know About Biological Warfare. DA Pam 8-12. September 1951. INF NWC

War Game "Big Finger" (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (March 1962). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Barker, M. E. "Chemical Weapons of the Future." Military Review, June 1947, 30+

_____. The 4.2-inch Mortar Went to War." Military Review, November 1947, 21-30.


Best, Robert J. The Value of Toxic Chemicals in Ground Warfare (U). Bethesda, MD: Research Analysis Corporation, (September 1962). NWC (SECRET)

Bobo, R. K. "Chemical, Biological Weapons are Inhumane: Fact or Fiction." Student Paper, Army War College, 1957. MHI

Bowmer, Ernest J. "The Role of Biological Agents in Future War." Marine Corps Gazette, October 1962, 14-15.

Brown, J. W. Vegetational Spray Tests in South Vietnam. Fort Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Corps, 1962. MPII.
[CAN YOU SAY, "AGENT ORANGE"...???]

"'BW'--Biological Warfare as a Weapon." Intelligence Bulletin, May 1946. INF"

CBR Agents ... See Section VI, TACTICS/OPERATIONS

CBR Common Subjects; Instructional Guide for U.S. Army Service Schools. Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Chemical School, December 1965. CDQ

"CBR Warfare Expansion Set." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 24 March 1962, 1.

CBR Weapons Orientation Course. Dugway, UT: Dugway Proving Ground, 1960. CDQ

Church, Bill. "Combat Troops Get Protective Mask." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July-August 1961, 9.

Coe, G. B. "The Chemical Corps and Body Armor." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1956, 34+.

Comparison of the HE and GB Weapons. See Section VI, TACTICS OPERATIONS.

Cookson, John, and Nottingham, Judith. A Survey of Chemical and Biological Warfare. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. CARL

Cottingham, L. B. See Section VI, TACTICS/OPERATIONS

Creasy, William M. "BW the Invisible Weapon." Army Information Digest, January 1955, 2-9.

____. "Smoke to Protect From A-Bomb Heat." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, May-June 1955, 20-25.

_____. "Toxicological Warfare." Ordnance, May-June 1958, 962-965.

Cummings, E. G., Marrero, J., and Bird, E. Seventy-Two Hour Outdoor Wearing Trial of Individual CBR Protective Clothing With M-17 Mask and E33 Hood Under Simulated Combat Conditions. Edgewood Arsenal, MD: Chemical Research and Development Labs, (September 1961). DTIC

DAVY CROCKETT Tactical Orientation Plan (U). Fort Monroe, VA: U.S. Continental Army Command, 18 June 1962. INF (SECRET)


A Doctrinal Test of the M23 Land Mine (U). Dugway Proving Ground, UT: (March 1964). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)
[PROJECT 112]

The Effects of Wearing the CBR Protective Mask upon the Performance of Selected Individual Combat Skills. Alexandria, VA: George Washington University, Human Resources Research Office, Training Methods Division, (June 1959). INF

Employment of Chemical Munitions. See Section VI, TACTICS /OPERATIONS.

Evaluation of M17 Masks in Simulated Biological Agent Attacks--Phase II (U). Fort Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Biological Labs, (May 1964). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Exercise SOUTH WIND, Control Plan. Annex F, Nuclear Weapons and CBR Control. Fort McPherson, GA: 3d Army Exercise Directorate, 7 January 1961). CMH

Factors that Influence the Effects of Chemical Agents: A Self-instructional Text. Fort Benning, GA: U.S. Army Infantry School, By date). INF

Fellenz, Lloyd E. "The Silent Weapons." Ordnance, May-June 1965, 610.

Gavin, James M. "Weapons GI's Will Fight With in Wars of the Future." U.S. News & World Report, 2 August 1957, 59-62.

"Gen. Ridgway Tells Nation of Army's Progress in Modern Weapons Use." Army-Navy-Air Force Journal, 29 February 1954, 750.

Gershater, E. M. "Chemistry at Work for the U.S. Army." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, March-April 1959, 14+.

______. "Psychochemicals." Army, August 1961, 47+.

[ONCE AGAIN, MK ULTRA, MK NAOMI, MIND CONTROL EXPERIMENTS]

Gross, William E. "Chemical, Biological and Radiological Protective Aspects of Permanent-Type Shelters." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January February 1957, 18+.

Gundel, B. Heinz. "The Case for CB Weapons." Ordnance, January-February 1963, 435-437.

Horner, C. T. "4.2 Chemical Mortar as an Infantry Weapon." Staff Study, 2d Command Class, CGSC, 29 April 1946. CARL

Human Factors in CBR Operations The Effects of CBR Protection upon the Performance of Selected Combat Skills in Hot Weather. Alexandria, VA: George Washington University, Human Resources Research Organization, Training Methods Division, (May 1961). IMF CARL

Insect-Borne Antipersonnel BW (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (1963). CS (SECRET)

Kleber, Brooks E. See Section II, DOCTRINE/ORGANIZATION.

______., and Birdsell, Dale. "The Unused Weapon." (Gas warfare) Military Review, January 1965, 54-62.

Krauss, Eberhard. "Biological Weapons." Military Review, February 1958, 99-101.

M17/M6 Mask/Hood and E64R1 Mask Evaluated in Simulated Biological Attacks (U). Fort Detrick, MD: U.S. Army Biological Labs, (June 1964). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Macy, R. "The Chemical Corps Search for Chemical Warfare Agents." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, November-December 1956, 22-24.

Military Problems with Aerosols and Nonpersistent Gases. (Summary technical report . . . Vol. 1) Washington, DC: U.S. National Defense Research Committee, Division 10, 1946. INF

Miller, Walter L. "The B of CBR." Infantry Magazine, October-November 1959, 32-34.

______. "The 'R' of CBR." Infantry, April 1958, 56-65.

Murphy, Walter A. "Bionics and Defense." Ordnance, May-June 1961, 888-890.

The Nature of the Chemical and Biological Threats to Which Mobile Collective Protection Equipment May Be Exposed (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (April 1962). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Operational Analysis of Project Sampler (Protective Mask Leakage) (U ). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: Operations Research Group, (August 1964). CS (SECRET)

Operational Evaluation of Agent XR (U). Fort McClellan, AL: U.S. Army Combat Developments Command, CBR Agency, (August 1963). CS (SECRET)

Properties of War Gases (U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Corps Board, (1956). CS (CONFIDENTIAL)

Requirements for Laundry Bath and Clothing Exchange Under Conditions of ABC Warfare. Fort Lee, VA: U.S. Army Quartermaster Board, (December 1957). CDQ

The Role of Army Aircraft in CBR Warfare (U). Fort Rucker, AL: U.S. Army Aviation School, (December 1960). CS (SECRET)

Rosebury, Theodor, and Kabat, Elvin A. "Bacterial Warfare, a Critical Analysis of the Available Agents, Their Possible Military Applications, and the Means for Protection Against Them." The Journal of Immunology, May 1947. INF NWC

Rothschild, Jacquard Hirshorn. Tomorrow's Weapons, Chemical and Biological. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. LC DIS

______. "Toxicological Warfare." Armed Forces Chemical Journal, January February 1957, 16-17.

______. "War With Toxic Weapons." Army, May 1964, 36-39+.

Simplified Calculation Aids for Biological Warfare Weapons Effects(U). Edgewood Arsenal, MD: U.S. Army Chemical Center, Chemical Corps Board, (November 1958). CS (SECRET)

Sorenson, Henry. "Flame Warfare." Military Review, August 1949, 85+.

Special Roles for Chemical and Biological Weapons (U). See Section VI, TACTICS/OPERATIONS.

Stahl, K. L. "CB Weapons: Armory of the Future?" Student Paper, Army War College, 1957. MHI

Stubbs, Marshall. "Invisible Weapons for the CBW Arsenal." Army Information Digest, January 1960, 32-40.

Toxic Chemical Warfare Agents--Report of Symposium IX, Vol. 1. n.p.: U.S. Chemical Warfare Laboratories, (May 1959). INF

Unmacht, George F. "Chemical Mortar Boats in the Pacific Ocean Areas." Military Review, November 1946, 15-19.
[NOT TO MENTION BIO-CHEM EXPERIMENTS BY SMALL BOATS IN VIETNAM, LAOS, & CAMBODIA...]

U.S. Army Chemical Corps, Project Coordination Staff. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field. Washington, DC: 1946. FAC

"War III, Germs vs. Germs: Plagues and Pests Groomed as Weapons; the Truth about Germ Warfare." U.S. News & World Report, 21 March 1952, 28-31.

Wilson, John 0. "What's in the Wind?" (Fort McClellan, AL.) Armed Forces Chemical Journal, July-August 1959, 20-22.

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UPON READING THROUGH THIS LIST, IT IS QUITE OBVIOUS THERE WAS A RAMP-UP TO PROJECT 112/SHAD THROUGH THE WAR COLLEGES FROM 1955-1960...AND I WOULD PRESUME THAT ANY MENTION OF FORT MCCLELLAN, FORT DETRICK, DUGWAY PROVING GROUND, AND ARMY AIRCRAFT OR ARTILLERY WERE DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO PROJECT 112/SHAD. PLEASE NOTE THE OPERATIONS FROM 1960 FORWARD MENTIONED HERE AND THE USE OF PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS AS WEAPONS, INCLUDING HALLUCINOGENS....!!!




YET, WE -THE PARTICIPANTS, WERE LED TO BELIEVE THAT WE WERE IN THE ONLY EFFORT BEING PUT FORTH AT THAT TIME.

SILLY US,

WE BELIEVED THEM....???